1ROUP S

on
Delion TF G s uon-empy set and o i a bay ope
A called if tLe follaoing tondilod e
o C1,thon (,o) aoup

salafied
1. Fon all abeG, a ob eG (Conwne nepest)
2. Fon all a,b,c EG, a oboc)= (aob) ec (Asocsafive Propet)
a o e = e oa
( E l a of Idet)
= a
3. e EG
elenenls beG
id am
. ac GG Lene
CExnlee o verue)
Lu hat a ob =boa = e
ed

aob bsa a,be G, e n G

Fthemohe
owmwwulalive 0 abean

Z(iet a l l itegers) a o
Eaple- Unden onduany addillo
C l o s w e þhopeby) *a,bé,
a+b
é z.
ii.Asecal+ve) a c) = a+)+c
ota
a-o
. I d e t ) a oe z aueh ht atO
-a e Z
a eeme
iv, (Tvese) ¥ ae Z tene i
(-a)+a.
a+-a)=
=

Luch tAt

a-b 5+a,
Monovere, Z i an abeliam
mnoue aa4
the kef o a eqen. whene prre
Exape- Let
z denstes

Fn we defme afon Ca-ia+ka|ezt

Fon , ) we defme La] =laska|kez}
Then foa )(7,+)
3 s 6 +ot 23 S
2 34 5 6% o 0 2 34SF Taole
Tae I: 2 61 3 S 2

3 5 4 2
2 S

2 63 3 1 2

H2 2 3
H 3 2 SO 2 3
6
5 - Lio): 3 S+ [1]-3
5+3 L2]= 2
 Bdk (Z,,+) and ( ) ane abelamap
-/o,1,2,3,4,s}
+) w abelian qnou
E e (Zp,
If con be Leon tasoe that
cloAwre Thepety-
S+-[+]-1 Cz
3 ¬ 7,
H+S a ]
addlon s AMoialive
) Associaliie onaiany
an idanlity
3). Tdely t hat abo
Aue
t). Inverse

wveue } s "
541 L6]-o

3+3- L&]-o invene 3

*

u
vee o2"
+2 63-o

3*3 nm- A i u d n m a n i e e s .
E e Let M b e set a l l
undnbmany
abelian unde bia
but ne
Then M anoup
AB fon evy A,BEM
e e a A
penalow

Dehon Onden G
The nmben
ue a
Fon eve o P
G omel i denoled by o(G) on G.
called the onden o

oz., +)]-*
P-Fon eah me.

den
then G ia abelion qnou
i)
ii) Le G1,-1,i}
mutipicalion and s 0nden s 3.
he enem Fon eveny a o G
a), the idenlity o G ine
aofh ideElie G then
Pno e , ad CNe

wenAe each eleme swque.

b,tte
both n veses o
AuPpode, b,
ane
Let a aG And t
nou
hen b-be =b (ac) -(boje.
et

DeFiilox :(Subgmoub } Gi).

amd
be a qroup Len w
Lef ePenalio
nalion of G,
moen bmary
Hid
a qneup

Ha aubgnoup sG
qnou , Then H
H a nonempy &ubsef a
hconem abeh
a,b ej,
a and o i a
ubgno o a ¬H, a eHA.
(5)

.
Pno abo h i a
submeup of
P. e depinlon H a qnou hehce i Aeliafie
onc on a) a b).

Le HeG e n fon a a,b,cH

ConvenAC I
G aAsoCiauve
Cab) c a Cbe)
(ab) c a le) n oA HCG
ARso u qiven Thd a , b h , abGH ciosw
and a a tn,, a nveMe

a'en aa-eCH
N
owo aeH, >

The idenit elemeu

SoH co vlams
'H a gnaup amo hente Lkgoup.
 (
m qr aH e adhCG,
then Ha a Aubanoup G f h ia Sased uder
t a y ohenaliou ,

1 ha aubmoup of G, 1L HueloAed don t e

hi-ay henaie G. i * h 4 a gap

Coovene, Det Hbe a non-

enfly Aubse

H eted.
o "TLa
. If aeH Th H oh hehjCh
aGh
t ak e
Auo ah,ah
hha
OCat)- ot)
tuat at-H
ah CH aud o(at) d) ,i «plaes
N

Evdlëme o lde,)
A aeH, beH uch to ab=a

Bw m C ab asae

Hconam tLe idealiy

m verAe

mce e ch=ah
elemel e n
e ac. on an

Th ca)- (ca) Cc a)
=c (ac)a
ea eas ca) e

e a) - = ac

a C H

Y a bubqo
Qelon- Dia bch operadiou G +3+
nove t a t (G, o) a abelian qop
Z.
De bay penalon y 1+1 on

Ve L t (Z.) om abel'an o

L e t s - R R , Def (u,v) o()-(un, va*y). Poe 1Lat

non-abeliam qnou
. Gnave 4hat G u cheey ( a ) - a a
N
Cab)a
a b ab aabb

cAnLelJ. 9aw 2
ba = ab i By p l Lept

Pnove
(a). ( a ) - a

a= e = aa

vehse o a

a (o"
(ab) Csa)= alb b)
e a - aa*\ - e

Albs b ) (ab) = e

a b

Hene ab)-b"ai,

G abelan itt (a aL
abeian then abeba
h Let Gu
Cb)-(ba) a By
Comven eCab)ab"
To pove ab =ba
Pne Cab)(ba)'- (ab)(Sa")a(bb)
a ea e
Ny (ha) Cab) e

ab s vene 4, e ab

bae ab
Erample Smelt g S tmiuh a enmulalous
,2,3,4,
Sy ton bisln o penwm ulalos,2,3,1
1he 21

T- 2 the ideu
Hene pewnualiou 23

T d /12 3 2 3

2 3
o gauemutala{23
c e d l e bmeay oeralion
3
2

a e 4no bu no abel;a

owmbwnGnphióm, Lso monphiam and cycli qnoups

Homomo7phism-
T G,o) aud 1, ) e sups and :G>H

hens calle oup omaTmariam for,bG

fla)-f (a) f )
Theone m LeG,o), be anoup respecke tdan i e
eaH : GH is a
homemohism then,
a). fea)= C . t a ) - [fe»] *a ¬G.
adnEZ
d ) c s )' a Aubyau f o ead asbyop G

no).
nho (). efCe)-flea)- P(eee) f¬.)-*f(e)
soyught canell alis a
e (ea)
)si a
6ubanou
d G S+d,hee +P.
LA{a), y- P) bon some. a,b¬ S.
Sts ubsnop asbes A*y- d o) * f)=(a o) e).
 e F.
Feally[feo]f(a-)
) a Aubgnou H
c T4omonphic qnoups
homomonphtA",
e cal
f oM
(G,o)-> (H,*) ia a
T amo omlo.
ume-lo - me.

, H ae. called tsoganpli 37oups

nwnba /1,-1,i,-i}
-tompler
Example - Lot Ge. te
mden wuiplicalo
den G4
o t H=(Z4,t)
F-1)-[2 f)-11 f)-1]
Then F(ije-)- f(1)- [o] =[1]+s]-f (t)+ fi)

also f(t-1) (-i))- f(:)= [11-{2]+s]= f(-1) +f-)

an onnohpdn
S1wi la ombidoiacAe

Conpider op G-]\,-1, i,-ij

Here 1-i i-1 2-1
evey elerner oG is a
pouwe 2
qanenale a G,
w
ioy
also-is genenaes G.
Del. Cyie qnou A oup G aalles i

there. is on eemen E G seh that fon eac a ¬G

acn, a=
.
ndon od{1) A a.
and
-1)
Ka e H Z y ) is ejelc
H.
a d 31 genenete
Fan 197
. C3] []
. C3 I3] +l3]-[6]2]
3-13] [3=i11
4 . 3 ) l127 14
Hene h-13) and ndea 9, 3] 4.
Cnden of a
a a
5oup ad a eG, the de 9
denced o
(a) i 1a

Tb
aeG t ,1 ke Z ad
eonem - L t oCa)-n

O the | k
n divides k'.
Pno B diviaion alaanithn

-n+a
So e = = a
- (a)(a)

o)
A
'a-e

8a o <a<n n d n is lke o ve legen

Auch tts a e
n-o a b-.

Hene
 Akomonphikm am Cyehe 6naup
Hamomahphikm,

Homonmomphim
ond G",
T ,) avd (,-) re 3roups

called qoup hamomonhism n all a,b cG

hec f
a

fCaubftey fty
Ssampc- Lot f:(R,.) » (R,+) hene
e y
ad , ) be qnoups il especRve
e n e - Le (G, o) TLe
H iA homamonphióm,
idevilies e , en f:6 a aG,

(a)flee) -e ( a ) -[fe] fn
all n e z .
oll a eG and
c.fCa= [f«] oHoeaeAubpop
SG.
). (S)is a subr
) e flea)- f(ca)
Fce - f (eoe)
=P lea) *
fCea)
i h teancellalisu
la llos4

Cea)-en
Pa)*fro)=(ao a)
en
f (ea)
=
-

vr e
iec
-Ca) an
uvcrAe A
i.. f e 1 ftar)
fCo) fey
(e
l ) . P(aoc)
hove hove that
P (aoa)-
Fe
=
a) S ua tugnad , 1Lo S4
Lol e) hen a-fa), 1 ) fon Aone a,b S

SIne Su a
Aubqmoup G, i follon
a obES

yfe fb- {Caoh)e f(

Finly fs]- fev (
,NO aES a a¬S

CeaeueA, byTeonen S) sanoup

el im luo LsomoRPHISM
T G,o)(, ahomornonphidm, we coll fa
i -one. and onlb
Aomonphióm T one

G,H ase said lb he isomophic qnoup

In this case

Erampe Let f: (R )>(R,+) e 9 - o

ni one- -0me amd onlo

fa,b CR", fCab) = loqi. (ah)

. an isomophhm.
 yche mo
ubens1,-1,i,-21
Let Gbe the raup oomplerx
wnole miicalion

1 1

a powen

So evey element of G
qenenoles Gn

G-1) etietene is an

&caled

e w os:A
gnou eoch a e
GG
such thd Foh
¬6 né Z
lenent 6one.
e on
Aet
aeGca i de
EmAe
neu G
niven

c= a

Now e
ees

a G S

ene qeneraled by a
subqnoup
hid2ubqmuup iscolled
a>
e
cleA1q
nale i

a a 290upn a6n, hhe ohden o

Delioa)
oheno
otadby ola) m ( a )
Cnder o a
n a gou, and a EG

ao S.
oa) =
na)) enelialit, 4et
has i e
m6)) le the Ao 1Lt
ve

8noln. when \<ayl iile hen S- A,a. ,d, a'-)t

a~d ae
cenen TaE G ut ola)-n. Tf kEZ
e k. ncdivides ke

noo B alivi kauthm

04nn

e =aR *=la")'a"
OCa) m
e.a hen a'= e

n
o<NLN, Omo onden a l a
B minimal eleme t
Lontnadi Aion aA n e

ue Lat a - e.

n-0 e

iO=n
Renn l:

kal- n

ca) w Le Amdlet -+ve inln nooich

e s ner) Lel a be a
C qrouP
finlë, tLen G is onofic to(z,+)
o).If m(G) u
is Kononphic t
whene n>l, then G
n(G)=n,
( , +)
Ga) a , ez}
Tnoo ().Fon
he delnel
bf(a)=R
er f:GZ
G, F(a" a')= f(o
Fon o " E
=m+M

F()+fa)
h o m o m o p s m .

F)= fl)

o n e - one.

neZ
n=f(a)

isomophim
Cn
e t
ia,a. .,aa"=ej
( b ) I G=<ay =
-

delmed b y f ( o [ ) rod
e r f:GZ
en
am o m 6n pism.

xanpe -
ea
e e eo
ecb
a
C e

l ae

Te doeiay
peup Hoahove
u
e

e) 1 , ola) = ol) = oc)- 2

Sn ce, no eVene o H has onden 4 Heannot oe

Cyeli

REMARK Te gnou Hu the smdlo noncyic aoup ad

non as
ECREM:Even subqmou o o ydic gou cuckie.
L e :ia).
ench element ol H
T Hsa subnoup G,
kez
theon- a , fon some

haa
le tLe
Anallesf po[ilve ileten
let t
H+ej
Fan
ueh that a e H .

H= .As eH
Cun din cheue tnopeily La>cH
By
some &¬ Z
b- a o7
Novd where
w hea q,ne
gne Z

cluvison aeulhm = qAn

y Ont

alt+

-4t a s

(a)
aeH
a'eH(a) t) eH
'eu
aubgnou
H
Cay GH

a"cH

te
coradics a
"CH,
8n<t, eH
o l hst
epe
i inime
d b a ) ' ELo*>
 COSE 1S

TDeu lin T Ha aEa,

aunap of 3, he fan each a¬a,
the aH-ah hen et coef ol H G
cose o h
Ha-ha hen i4niqht
eenalou m is oddiliou e e
tL
nauds Tbmco

at H ath
| he Jeft eset H a.

ateh G
Hta haa | h

Fon G-(za,+) and H= lo1, LAJ, I3]

ka ple

[o+H- [O, [4), [:]f

+fL23,L61 io14

81,[i21j =i 14I, I81,[o]}

41tH 41,[

'[+H= [o]t H=
H

C311-{Li2, [s].[°]}- []+

s3Mt5].ti1.

T*]+h= [u]+ h,
s3+H

Hene Caset give riLe

 16.

eoma ( TH ubnoup t h e le oup Gi,

then fan al a, béG ie. man)- m(n)
.
(a)aH- Canoinai ane.

aR- bH aH n bh-p.
en
b)
b ).

( a ) S e aH-fahken
ah ¬aH
ah eM
that ¥
'ow
h e e aH C
erdimslunb

oh-Tck, ok,
h
A ero h; #h
we
hav ah;- ah;
conelsaEo.
Jauw C
By e P which à
couhaoi5.

h=h,

Aone
h.,heH.
ahb
fon
C
AoehE
Le éaH
Hen

x= (bh h,")h

bel onq b bH
e H
ebncf
aH
oaH belorqt
'. eveh a H Cb h . -

Yebh, on Ame h,eh

i m l a , yeht>
-bh
(ahh)hs = a
(h,h,'h) e a
Hah
h od bh ane eilhen clisjo n idaWieol,

emoba
heonem Laqaghones Teonou
noley H a a subgaup
T Gis a file no
Then mdivides n. (
onde ,
T HG esudt f00os

Oerusite mn. H
elament a £G-H
3on
Le

me a

aH+H
Lenma aHOH p
Tereoe.
1 - aHUH

Ahen G-laH|-|H|

= 2H
hesnem Follos
he

eJerant béG-(HUatH)
tkepe 3 ie
nol,
bHOH=¢ =bHNat

CAnel bH
=
IH|
we
have G|=31H|
G-'oHUaHUH,
G
bock o on levnant cE
uebc.
theisc.

c bHU 2H UH.
Lolwn-es...

The ne cess
e i ammaes ms we md
AA
AA
a Ua,HU UH
Cl-ta,H]+19,4}r- -*loa
, mn
Conolas T 6a ul
p ad ae, .
Ca veqmaup pnwneerdr s ie .
Le be a o u o n m e d e r ie, > 1 .
Le
An clevneul CaEG #¬.
Le H be a
ubano 9, Ond m eeaJed by a
H&
SyLasnoaek L e

Bu p me .'. elea m-Lnp

m-1 nt bo&sble a aEH o rantLee

nee H=G caelae.

 xecise l6.1

Foh an up G, prave.1ht a,bea amJ

ta (ab) = a*b
- (ab)- abab
abelo
aabh

ab2

tha ab)-atb
Le u kuppote
we
sve a pave ab ba
ab ab = aabb Gie)
B caneellso laus
b abb

u Contellion .

ba ab

, Pnoe t h t v a, b E
.T G a
a
() b)-L
ca(a) =a
a.a= e
P Ad

(6) (ab)'= b a

(ba)Cab)= bra)b
b e
b renee ( a )

Snd bat wmvense oab

(as)-ba
 I n i a qmou, Jel H- faeG) ¬Gj

nove Ahal Hs a
mbanop

a,bCH
Let
demilon

eneke bg-g aaEG.

ana

Noto aba- agbl-("3)b gab

ab)g = 3 Cab)
ab CH

e o EH aeG anoleste

ence H Aubghonb

tat HOK u
gnou G, pnae
19 Tn,K are Avbgonps o
a

olao subgnorp oF.

G
hos L Hk Aubgnop 4
ane

am , bék
As 1,K ane Auagno wp
abch a a k abe hK
a e hOk
HOiA a abnep G.
RER Fan C Eam e ala 9rou i 5 nb5noups H, k
Auch HUK no Aubgnous 4 C.
 mnnm n 1nbbus (15
novenave thut sheio )ab.
Tros C abelian.
W Venod (ab) 'a
A abe.on , th ene fone ab = ba

chqmale od a
(ali). a
Hehe ved
Ee s Apeoe tot (a)aL
e ou t n a r e that a b ba

(ab)aSO
Aso Cab)5a-D

(ab)Cab) = e

)abe

ab)L)-e
Cehceato a s

(ab)

ab ba
C is abeldn.
ene .21

(4 Lol':G bea
qrap ho-nomonphiah onb 1f G
abelion, prove That . ohe on

1100 abeian 7ou lh bna openah

CaAd h, *) be n gaup
A 'u abeicn a, bEG a o b eG

flaob)= fca) *(b)

FCboe)- f()* f ca)
PCab)-P ( a e,eG
abeion
AG

Hi abeXiom alo

Pneve yeie.
that (zz,)u
=2.2-2-2]-[16] + 2 1
2 B

3 3 1 2
3 2
3)-[]
1-[2:1
- a y L o ( a )=n,
hove
5Le
2ime
n R ad n ane nelalive

Cer be den o oA (a) :eas

kaha(a)-\ 1e a"-e
heone , on paje
an ne copum Geel (b n)- 1
Mmma
nensPes .
 H be a
2oup omomoaphu),

G oa)- R
T a ola) -n Omol

movethat n
e ha ohden has u7de

.(fce)
Non

Pe e,
ohdeh
k. T-eanen k \n

xenese 16. 3

3Fenals \Leeam T phme, pove Tha

a a (mod )on eacl a Zz

nAs i phwe ConidentLe se Z i4

u e i c aswe o obekan, Let ae z

Right ce zp codas eemefa

2a- a, 2a,3a, -

(P-ljaf
Oneb
o n 2S< b-
thon we hawe n&mnad P)
wehis cmhaocuon so
-1 l e
e disinet,
md musl be conwhe unl lo 27-rb-J
andeh.

a. a3a. -aF1.2.3.-P-1) (mod p)

p-1)! = (p-)f (mod b)
a almod p). e ph one