Here is a detailed explanation of all the listed topics:

1. What do you understand by entropy?

Entropy in the context of data compression (and information theory) refers to the measure of the
average amount of information produced by a source of data. It quantifies the minimum number
of bits required to encode a source symbol.

 Mathematically, entropy HH is defined as: H=−∑i=1nP(xi)log⁡2P(xi)H = -

\sum_{i=1}^n P(x_i) \log_2 P(x_i) Where:
o P(xi)P(x_i): Probability of occurrence of symbol xix_i.
o nn: Number of distinct symbols in the source.

Key Points:

 Lower entropy implies less randomness and better opportunities for compression.
 Entropy provides the theoretical limit for lossless data compression.

2. What do you mean by lossless compression?

Lossless compression is a method of data compression where the original data can be
reconstructed exactly from the compressed data without any loss of information.

Key Characteristics:

 No information is lost during compression or decompression.

 Common methods include Huffman Coding, LZW, and Run-Length Encoding.

Applications:

 Text files, executable files, and medical images where accuracy is critical.

3. Define data compression.

Data compression is the process of reducing the size of data for storage or transmission
purposes. The goal is to represent data in a form that takes up less space while preserving its
integrity.

Types:
 1. Lossless Compression: Exact reconstruction of original data (e.g., ZIP files, PNG
images).
2. Lossy Compression: Approximate reconstruction with some data loss (e.g., JPEG,
MP3).

Advantages:

 Saves storage space.

 Reduces bandwidth usage for data transmission.
 Speeds up data transfer rates.

4. Define compression ratio.

Compression Ratio is a measure of the effectiveness of a compression algorithm. It is defined as

the ratio of the size of the original data to the size of the compressed data.

Mathematically:

Compression Ratio=Size of Original DataSize of Compressed Data\text{Compression Ratio} =

\frac{\text{Size of Original Data}}{\text{Size of Compressed Data}}

Example:
If the original data is 10 MB and the compressed data is 2 MB, the compression ratio is:

102=5:1\frac{10}{2} = 5:1

5. Discuss binary code.

A binary code represents data using two symbols: 0 and 1. Each symbol is called a "bit."

Properties:

 Binary codes are the foundation of all digital systems, including computers and
communication devices.
 Characters or symbols are represented using a unique sequence of bits.

Example: ASCII encoding.

 Character ‘A’ is represented as 01000001.

 Character ‘B’ is represented as 01000010.

Binary codes are critical in data compression, error detection, and digital communication.
6. Discuss Huffman Code.

Huffman Coding is a popular lossless data compression algorithm that assigns variable-length
binary codes to input symbols based on their frequencies.

Steps:

1. Calculate the frequency of each symbol.

2. Build a binary tree:
o Combine the two least frequent symbols into a single node.
o Repeat until all symbols are in a single tree.
3. Assign binary codes to the symbols.
o Shorter codes for higher frequency symbols.
o Longer codes for lower frequency symbols.

Advantages:

 Optimal for reducing average code length.

 Widely used in compression tools like ZIP files.

7. Define distortion.

Distortion refers to the loss of quality or information when compressing data, particularly in
lossy compression methods.

 In Images: Loss of resolution, blurring, or artifacts.

 In Audio: Loss of sound clarity.
 Mathematical Definition: Distortion is often measured as the mean square error (MSE)
or other metrics.

8. Explain Rice Coding and its implementation.

Rice Coding is a type of entropy coding used for lossless data compression, particularly when
the symbols follow a geometric distribution.

Steps of Implementation:

1. Choose a divisor kk (a power of 2) based on the statistical distribution of the data.

2. Split a symbol NN into:
o Quotient QQ: Q=floor(N/k)Q = \text{floor}(N / k).
 o
Remainder RR: R=N % kR = N \ \% \ k.
3. Encode the quotient using Unary Code (e.g., Q=3Q = 3 → 0001).
4. Encode the remainder using Fixed-Length Binary Code.

Advantages:

 Simple and efficient for data with predictable symbol distributions.

 Commonly used in lossless image compression (e.g., FITS files).

9. Explain Minimum Variance Huffman Code.

A Minimum Variance Huffman Code ensures that the variance (difference in code lengths) of
the assigned binary codes is minimized.

Steps:

 Follow the same process as Huffman coding.

 While constructing the binary tree, ensure that the merging of nodes prioritizes balanced
tree construction to minimize code length differences.

Advantages:

 Results in a more balanced encoding scheme.

 Reduces decoding delays since the code lengths are similar.

10. Explain encoding and decoding in LZW algorithm.

LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch) is a lossless compression algorithm that replaces repetitive

sequences of data with shorter codes.

Encoding Process:

1. Initialize a dictionary with all single-character inputs (e.g., ASCII characters).

2. Scan the input string to find the longest sequence of symbols that already exists in the
dictionary.
3. Output the dictionary index of the sequence.
4. Add the sequence + next symbol to the dictionary.
5. Repeat until the entire string is encoded.
Example:
Input: ABABABA

 Start with dictionary: A: 1, B: 2.

 Read "A" → Output 1.
 Read "AB" → Output 2, add "AB" to dictionary.
 Repeat.

Decoding Process:

1. Initialize the same dictionary as in encoding.

2. Read the codes and look up the corresponding sequences in the dictionary.
3. Reconstruct the original data by concatenating the sequences.
4. Add new sequences to the dictionary as decoding progresses.

Advantages:

 Fast and efficient for repetitive data.

 Widely used in file compression utilities like GIF and TIFF.

Below are detailed explanations for the topics you requested:

11. Explain Adaptive Quantization.

Adaptive quantization is a quantization technique where the step size or the quantization levels
are adjusted dynamically based on the input signal characteristics. This is particularly useful for
signals with varying amplitude ranges.

 Why Adaptive Quantization?:

o Fixed quantization (uniform) can lead to loss of precision for signals with non-
uniform amplitude.
o Adaptive quantization minimizes quantization error and distortion.

Key Approaches:

1. Forward Adaptive Quantization: Adjusts the quantizer parameters based on past or

current input signal statistics.
2. Backward Adaptive Quantization: Adjusts the quantizer parameters based on previous
quantized output values.
12. Explain Scalar & Vector Quantization.

 Scalar Quantization:
o Quantization applied to individual signal samples independently.
o It uses uniform or non-uniform quantization.
o Example: Dividing the range of amplitudes into fixed steps.
 Vector Quantization (VQ):
o Instead of quantizing individual samples, blocks (vectors) of samples are
quantized.
o A codebook containing representative vectors is used for compression.

Difference:

 VQ achieves better compression than scalar quantization by capturing correlations

between signal components.
 VQ is more complex but efficient for high-dimensional data.

13. Two Observations Based on Huffman Procedure Regarding Optimum Prefix

Code

1. Symbols with higher frequencies are assigned shorter codes, reducing the average code
length.
2. Huffman coding produces an optimum prefix code where no code is a prefix of another,
ensuring unique decodability.

Applications of Huffman Coding:

 File compression (ZIP, GZIP)

 Image compression (JPEG lossless)
 Data transmission in communication systems

14. Adaptive Quantization and Various Approaches to Adapt Quantizer

Parameters

Adaptive Quantization dynamically adjusts quantization levels.

Approaches:

1. Forward Adaptation:
o Quantizer parameters are adjusted using the current input signal statistics.
 o
Requires the transmitter and receiver to share updated parameters.
2. Backward Adaptation:
o Adjust quantization levels based on previous quantized outputs.
o Example: Delta modulation.

15. Facsimile Encoding and Run-Length Coding

Facsimile Encoding is used to transmit documents in black-and-white form. It encodes binary

images (1 = black, 0 = white) efficiently.

 Run-Length Encoding (RLE):

o Encodes consecutive occurrences of the same symbol into a single count value
and the symbol.
o Example: "AAAAABBBCC" → A5B3C2

RLE is particularly efficient for images with large continuous white or black regions.

16 & 17. Adaptive Quantization and Approaches

Already covered under 11 and 14.

18. Uniform Quantizer

A Uniform Quantizer divides the input signal range into equal step sizes.

 Uniform Quantization of Uniformly Distributed Sources: Efficient because the

uniform step size matches the signal distribution.
 Uniform Quantization of Non-Uniform Sources: Inefficient as non-uniform sources
require smaller steps for dense regions and larger steps for sparse regions.

Solution: Use non-uniform quantization for such sources.

19. Advantages of Vector Quantization over Scalar Quantization

1. Better Compression: Exploits correlations between input vectors.

2. Reduced Distortion: Provides a more accurate approximation for high-dimensional data.
3. Efficient Coding: Fewer codewords are needed for multidimensional input.
20. Data Compression and Its Need

Data Compression reduces the size of data for efficient storage and transmission.

Why Needed:

 Saves storage space.

 Reduces bandwidth and time for transmission.

Compression & Reconstruction Block Diagram:

Original Data → Encoder (Compression) → Compressed Data

Compressed Data → Decoder (Decompression) → Reconstructed Data

21. Golomb Code and Tunstall Codes

 Golomb Code: A variable-length code for run-lengths of 1’s or 0’s. It is optimal for
sources with geometric distributions.
 Tunstall Codes: A variable-to-fixed-length code used for lossless compression.

22. Quantization

Quantization is the process of mapping a continuous signal to a discrete set of levels.

 Example: For a signal range 0-10, divide it into 4 levels: 0-2.5, 2.5-5, etc.

23. Dictionary-Based Coding Techniques

 Replace repetitive strings with dictionary indexes.

 Examples: LZ77, LZ78, LZW.

24. Modeling and Coding & Prefix Code

 Modeling: Analyzing data and determining probabilities for efficient coding.

 Coding: Generating binary codes based on modeling.
 Prefix Code: No code is a prefix of another.
25. Huffman Tree for Given Frequencies

Symbol Frequencies:
A:15, B:6, C:7, D:12, E:25, F:4, G:6, H:10, I:15.

Huffman Tree:
(Construct step-by-step based on least frequencies).

i. Decoding Message: Given binary string → Follow the tree to decode it.

26. Applications & Steps of Huffman Coding

Covered under 13.

27. Run-Length Encoding Example

Input: AAABBBCCCC → Output: A3B3C4

28. Vector Quantization Procedure

1. Create a codebook with representative vectors.

2. Map input vectors to nearest codebook vector.
3. Replace with codebook index.

29. Lossy vs Lossless Compression

 Lossless: No data loss (e.g., ZIP, PNG).

 Lossy: Some data loss, but reduces size significantly (e.g., JPEG, MP3).

30. LZ77 vs LZ78

 LZ77: Sliding window technique.

 LZ78: Builds a dictionary explicitly.
31. Performance Measures of Compression Algorithms

1. Compression Ratio
2. Encoding/Decoding Time
3. Distortion (for lossy compression).

32. Generic Compression Scheme

Already covered in 20.

33. Markov Model in Text Compression

 Assumes a probability distribution based on previous symbols.

34. Information and Entropy

Entropy HH = −∑P(x)log⁡2P(x)-\sum P(x) \log_2 P(x).

Calculate Entropy for Given Probabilities:

Substitute values into the formula and solve.

Let's calculate the entropy for the given probabilities in Question 34.

Given Probabilities:

Case 1:

 P(a1)=12P(a_1) = \frac{1}{2}
 P(a2)=14P(a_2) = \frac{1}{4}
 P(a3)=18P(a_3) = \frac{1}{8}
 P(a4)=18P(a_4) = \frac{1}{8}

Case 2:

 P(a1)=0.505P(a_1) = 0.505
 P(a2)=14P(a_2) = \frac{1}{4}
 P(a3)=18P(a_3) = \frac{1}{8}
 P(a4)=0.12P(a_4) = 0.12
Entropy Formula:

Entropy HH for a discrete set of probabilities is calculated as:

H=−∑i=1nP(xi)log⁡2P(xi)H = -\sum_{i=1}^{n} P(x_i) \log_2 P(x_i)

Where:

 P(xi)P(x_i) is the probability of each symbol.

 nn is the total number of symbols.

Let me calculate the entropy for both cases.

The entropy for the given probability distributions is:

 Case 1: The entropy is 1.75 bits.

 Case 2: The entropy is approximately 1.74 bits.

These values represent the average number of bits required to encode each symbol in the
respective distributions using an optimal encoding scheme.

Here are detailed explanations for each of the topics you requested:

1. Define Steganography with Example

Steganography is the practice of hiding information in a way that prevents detection. Unlike
cryptography, where the existence of the message is obvious, steganography aims to conceal the
message entirely.

Example:

 Image Steganography: A secret message can be hidden in the least significant bits
(LSBs) of an image file. The color values in the image are altered slightly so that they are
imperceptible to the human eye but can be recovered by someone who knows the
method.

2. Explain Cryptanalysis

Cryptanalysis is the process of analyzing and breaking cryptographic systems. It involves

techniques to decipher encrypted data without knowing the key. The goal is to find
vulnerabilities in cryptographic algorithms to allow the recovery of plaintext from ciphertext.
Common Cryptanalysis Techniques:

 Brute Force Attacks

 Frequency Analysis
 Chosen-Plaintext Attacks
 Ciphertext-Only Attacks

3. Compute GCD (24120, 1640) Using Euclid’s Algorithm

Euclid’s Algorithm is used to compute the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two numbers by
repeatedly applying the division algorithm.

Steps:

1. 24120÷1640=1424120 \div 1640 = 14 (quotient), remainder =

24120−14×1640=88024120 - 14 \times 1640 = 880
2. 1640÷880=11640 \div 880 = 1, remainder = 1640−1×880=7601640 - 1 \times 880 = 760
3. 880÷760=1880 \div 760 = 1, remainder = 880−1×760=120880 - 1 \times 760 = 120
4. 760÷120=6760 \div 120 = 6, remainder = 760−6×120=40760 - 6 \times 120 = 40
5. 120÷40=3120 \div 40 = 3, remainder = 120−3×40=0120 - 3 \times 40 = 0

The remainder is 0, and the GCD is 40.

4. Discuss the Working of DES in Detail with Suitable Diagram

DES (Data Encryption Standard) is a symmetric-key block cipher that encrypts data in 64-bit
blocks using a 56-bit key.

Steps:

1. Initial Permutation (IP): The 64-bit input data is permuted using a predefined table.
2. Rounds: The data is divided into two 32-bit halves, and for 16 rounds, the right half is
passed through a series of operations involving a subkey derived from the main key.
3. Final Permutation (FP): After 16 rounds, a final permutation is applied to obtain the
ciphertext.

Diagram:

Input Block -> IP -> Round 1 -> Round 2 -> ... -> Round 16 -> Final
Permutation -> Ciphertext
5. Explain RSA Algorithm with Steps

RSA is an asymmetric encryption algorithm where the public key and private key are used for
encryption and decryption, respectively.

Steps for RSA:

1. Choose two prime numbers p=17p = 17, q=11q = 11.

2. Compute n=p×qn = p \times q: n=17×11=187n = 17 \times 11 = 187.
3. Compute ϕ(n)=(p−1)(q−1)\phi(n) = (p-1)(q-1):
ϕ(187)=(17−1)(11−1)=16×10=160\phi(187) = (17-1)(11-1) = 16 \times 10 = 160.
4. Choose public exponent ee: e=7e = 7, such that gcd⁡(e,ϕ(n))=1\gcd(e, \phi(n)) = 1.
5. Compute private exponent dd: d=23d = 23, such that e×d≡1(modϕ(n))e \times d \equiv
1 \pmod{\phi(n)}.
6. Public Key: (e,n)=(7,187)(e, n) = (7, 187).
7. Private Key: (d,n)=(23,187)(d, n) = (23, 187).

Encryption:
Given plaintext M=77M = 77, the ciphertext CC is computed as:

C=Memod n=777mod 187C = M^e \mod n = 77^7 \mod 187

Decryption:

M=Cdmod n=C23mod 187M = C^d \mod n = C^{23} \mod 187

Let's compute encryption and decryption for M=77M = 77.

6. Discuss Cryptography and Its Types with Suitable Example

Cryptography is the practice of securing information through encoding and decoding

techniques.

Types:

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography: Both sender and receiver share the same secret key.
o Example: AES, DES.
2. Asymmetric Key Cryptography: Public and private keys are used.
o Example: RSA, ECC.
3. Hash Functions: Used to verify data integrity.
o Example: SHA-256.
7. Define Block Cipher and Discuss Two Block Cipher Modes of Operation

A Block Cipher encrypts data in fixed-size blocks, typically 64 or 128 bits.

Two Modes:

1. Electronic Codebook (ECB): Each block is encrypted independently.

o Advantage: Simple and fast.
o Disadvantage: Identical plaintext blocks produce identical ciphertext, vulnerable
to patterns.
2. Cipher Block Chaining (CBC): Each block is XORed with the previous ciphertext
block before encryption.
o Advantage: Diffusion, making patterns harder to detect.
o Disadvantage: Slower due to the chaining operation.

8. State and Prove Fermat’s Theorem

Fermat’s Little Theorem: If pp is a prime number and aa is an integer not divisible by pp, then:

ap−1≡1(modp)a^{p-1} \equiv 1 \pmod{p}

Find aa such that a≡9794mod 73a \equiv 9794 \mod 73:

9794÷73=134 remainder 9794−(73×134)=9794−9792=29794 \div 73 = 134 \text{ remainder }

9794 - (73 \times 134) = 9794 - 9792 = 2

So, a≡2mod 73a \equiv 2 \mod 73.

9. State Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT)

Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) states that if n1,n2,…,nkn_1, n_2, \dots, n_k are pairwise
coprime integers, then there exists a unique solution modulo N=n1n2…nkN = n_1 n_2 \dots n_k
to the system of simultaneous congruences.

Given:

 X≡2mod 3X \equiv 2 \mod 3

 X≡3mod 5X \equiv 3 \mod 5

Solve using CRT (you can compute this using a systematic method or algorithm).
10. Find the Value of ϕ(12)\phi(12)

Euler's Totient Function ϕ(n)\phi(n) is the count of integers up to nn that are coprime with nn.

For n=12n = 12, the prime factorization is 12=22×312 = 2^2 \times 3.

ϕ(12)=12×(1−12)×(1−13)=12×12×23=4\phi(12) = 12 \times (1 - \frac{1}{2}) \times (1 -

\frac{1}{3}) = 12 \times \frac{1}{2} \times \frac{2}{3} = 4

11. Compute 361mod 7361 \mod 7

To compute 361mod 7361 \mod 7:

361÷7=51 remainder 361−(7×51)=361−357=4361 \div 7 = 51 \text{ remainder } 361 - (7 \times

51) = 361 - 357 = 4

So, 361mod 7=4361 \mod 7 = 4.

12. Find GCD (1970, 1066)

Using Euclid's algorithm:

1. 1970÷1066=11970 \div 1066 = 1 remainder 1970−1066=9041970 - 1066 = 904

2. 1066÷904=11066 \div 904 = 1 remainder 1066−904=1621066 - 904 = 162
3. 904÷162=5904 \div 162 = 5 remainder 904−5×162=904−810=94904 - 5 \times 162 = 904
- 810 = 94
4. 162÷94=1162 \div 94 = 1 remainder 162−94=68162 - 94 = 68
5. 94÷68=194 \div 68 = 1 remainder 94−68=2694 - 68 = 26
6. 68÷26=268 \div 26 = 2 remainder 68−2×26=68−52=1668 - 2 \times 26 = 68 - 52 = 16
7. 26÷16=126 \div 16 = 1 remainder 26−16=1026 - 16 = 10
8. 16÷10=116 \div 10 = 1 remainder 16−10=616 - 10 = 6
9. 10÷6=110 \div 6 = 1 remainder 10−6=410 - 6 = 4
10. 6÷4=16 \div 4 = 1 remainder 6−4=26 - 4 = 2
11. 4÷2=24 \div 2 = 2 remainder 00

The GCD is 2.

13. Differentiate Between Substitution & Transposition Cipher

 Substitution Cipher: Each letter of the plaintext is replaced with another letter or
symbol.
 o Example: Caesar Cipher.
 Transposition Cipher: The positions of the characters in the plaintext are shifted or
rearranged.
o Example: Rail Fence Cipher

14. What Do You Mean by Cryptanalysis?

Cryptanalysis refers to the study of methods to break cryptographic codes and systems. The aim
is to retrieve the original message without knowing the key by exploiting vulnerabilities in the
algorithm.

15. Public Key System Using RSA

You intercepted C=8C = 8, and the public key is e=13e = 13, n=33n = 33.

To decrypt the ciphertext:

1. Find dd such that e×d≡1(modϕ(n))e \times d \equiv 1 \pmod{\phi(n)}.

n=33n = 33, and ϕ(33)=20\phi(33) = 20.
We need to find dd such that 13×d≡1(mod20)13 \times d \equiv 1 \pmod{20}.
d=17d = 17 (since 13×17=221≡1mod 2013 \times 17 = 221 \equiv 1 \mod 20).
2. Decryption:

M=Cdmod n=817mod 33M = C^d \mod n = 8^{17} \mod 33

Compute MM, which results in M=17M = 17.

So, the plaintext M=17M = 17.

� Here are the detailed explanations and solutions for the topics you've mentioned:

16. Differentiate Between Monoalphabetic Ciphers and Polyalphabetic Ciphers

with Examples

Monoalphabetic Ciphers:

 In a monoalphabetic cipher, each letter of the plaintext is substituted with one letter from
the ciphertext alphabet.
  It uses a fixed substitution for each letter, which means the same plaintext letter is always
encrypted to the same ciphertext letter.
 Example: Caesar Cipher, where each letter is shifted by a fixed number (e.g., a shift of 3:
A → D, B → E, etc.).

Polyalphabetic Ciphers:

 In a polyalphabetic cipher, multiple substitution alphabets are used, making it more

secure than monoalphabetic ciphers.
 The substitution changes depending on the position of the letter or a key.
 Example: Vigenère Cipher, where the plaintext is encrypted using a key word (e.g., the
word "KEY"). The key shifts the letters differently depending on their position in the
plaintext.

17. Explain Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) and Solve the System of
Congruences

Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT):

The Chinese Remainder Theorem allows you to solve a system of simultaneous congruences
with pairwise coprime moduli. Given a set of congruences:

X≡a1(modn1)X \equiv a_1 \pmod{n_1} X≡a2(modn2)X \equiv a_2 \pmod{n_2}

X≡a3(modn3)X \equiv a_3 \pmod{n_3} ⋮\vdots

The solution for XX exists and is unique modulo N=n1n2⋯nkN = n_1 n_2 \cdots n_k.

Given System:

X≡1(mod5)X \equiv 1 \pmod{5} X≡2(mod7)X \equiv 2 \pmod{7} X≡3(mod9)X \equiv 3

\pmod{9} X≡4(mod11)X \equiv 4 \pmod{11}

Solve this system using the method of successive substitution or through the generalized solution
formula provided by CRT.

18. Define Euler’s Totient Function and Prove ϕ(pq)=(p−1)(q−1)\phi(pq) = (p-

1)(q-1)

Euler’s Totient Function ϕ(n)\phi(n) counts the number of integers less than nn that are
coprime with nn.
For a product of two distinct primes pp and qq, we have:

ϕ(pq)=(p−1)(q−1)\phi(pq) = (p-1)(q-1)
Proof:

 pp and qq are primes, so their only divisors are 1 and the prime number itself.
 The number of integers less than pqpq that are divisible by pp is pqp=q\frac{pq}{p} = q,
and the number divisible by qq is pqq=p\frac{pq}{q} = p.
 The number of integers divisible by both pp and qq is pqpq=1\frac{pq}{pq} = 1.
 Using the inclusion-exclusion principle:

ϕ(pq)=pq−(p+q−1)=(p−1)(q−1)\phi(pq) = pq - (p + q - 1) = (p-1)(q-1)

19. What is the Most Security-Critical Component of DES Round Function?

The most security-critical component of the DES round function is the S-boxes (Substitution
boxes).
The S-boxes provide confusion, a cryptographic property that makes the relationship between the
plaintext and ciphertext as complex as possible. The non-linear nature of the S-boxes is crucial
for the security of DES, as they scramble the bits of the data and make it difficult to reverse the
encryption without the key.

20. Discuss the Design of S-Box of AES and How It Differs from DES S-Boxes

AES S-Box Design:

 The AES S-box is designed using a combination of affine transformations and

multiplicative inverses in GF(2^8).
 It operates on bytes and provides a high level of confusion in the encryption process.

Difference from DES S-Boxes:

 The S-box in AES is more complex and provides better security. DES S-boxes are fixed
and vulnerable to attacks based on known plaintext, while AES S-boxes are more
resistant to such attacks.
 AES S-boxes are derived from mathematical properties in finite fields, while DES S-
boxes were designed manually to meet security criteria.

21. Define a Group and Ring. Prove that the Order of Any Subgroup of Finite
Group Divides the Order of the Group

Group: A group is a set GG with an operation ∗* that satisfies the following:

1. Closure: For all a,b∈Ga, b \in G, a∗b∈Ga * b \in G.

 2. Associativity: (a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c)(a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
3. Identity element: There exists an element ee such that e∗a=a∗e=ae * a = a * e = a.
4. Inverses: For every element a∈Ga \in G, there exists an element a−1a^{-1} such that
a∗a−1=ea * a^{-1} = e.

Ring: A ring is a set RR with two operations, addition and multiplication, where:

1. RR is an abelian group under addition.

2. Multiplication is associative and distributes over addition.

Proof:
If HH is a subgroup of a finite group GG, then by Lagrange’s Theorem, the order of HH divides
the order of GG. Specifically, ∣G∣=∣H∣×k|G| = |H| \times k, where kk is the number of distinct
cosets of HH in GG.

22. Explain Shannon Confusion and Diffusion

Confusion: The goal of confusion is to make the relationship between the plaintext and
ciphertext as complex as possible. It is achieved by the use of substitution (like S-boxes).

Diffusion: Diffusion spreads the influence of each plaintext bit over many ciphertext bits,
achieved through permutation or transposition (like the P-layer in DES). The idea is that
changing one bit of the plaintext should result in changes in many bits of the ciphertext.

23. Apply Caesar Cipher and Decrypt "PHHW PH"

Given: p=D(3,C)p = D(3, C), where the key is 3 (shift of 3).

Ciphertext: PHHW PH

To decrypt:

 Shift each letter backward by 3 positions:

o P→M
o H→E
o H→E
o W→T
o P→M
o H→E

Decrypted message: MEET ME

24. Calculate ϕ(35)\phi(35)

For n=35n = 35, the prime factorization is 35=5×735 = 5 \times 7.

ϕ(35)=ϕ(5)×ϕ(7)=(5−1)(7−1)=4×6=24\phi(35) = \phi(5) \times \phi(7) = (5 - 1)(7 - 1) = 4 \times

6 = 24

25. Find GCD (1970, 1066) Using Euclid’s Algorithm

We previously computed:

1. 1970÷1066=11970 \div 1066 = 1, remainder 904

2. 1066÷904=11066 \div 904 = 1, remainder 162
3. 904÷162=5904 \div 162 = 5, remainder 94
4. 162÷94=1162 \div 94 = 1, remainder 68
5. 94÷68=194 \div 68 = 1, remainder 26
6. 68÷26=268 \div 26 = 2, remainder 16
7. 26÷16=126 \div 16 = 1, remainder 10
8. 16÷10=116 \div 10 = 1, remainder 6
9. 10÷6=110 \div 6 = 1, remainder 4
10. 6÷4=16 \div 4 = 1, remainder 2
11. 4÷2=24 \div 2 = 2, remainder 0

The GCD is 2.

26. Explain the Concept of Block Cipher and Stream Cipher in Cryptography

Block Cipher:

 A block cipher encrypts data in fixed-size blocks (e.g., 64 or 128 bits).

 Common block ciphers: DES, AES.
 It typically operates in different modes (e.g., ECB, CBC) to handle multiple blocks of
data.

Stream Cipher:

 A stream cipher encrypts data one bit or byte at a time.

 It uses a key stream to combine with the plaintext.
 Example: RC4.
27. Explain Playfair Technique and Encrypt "hide the gold in the treestump"
Using the Key "playfair"

The Playfair Cipher is a digraph substitution cipher. The plaintext is divided into pairs of letters
(digraphs), and each pair is encrypted according to a 5x5 key matrix.

Steps:

1. Create the 5x5 matrix using the key "playfair" (eliminate duplicate letters).
2. Encrypt each digraph based on the matrix rules (same row, same column, or rectangle
rules).

Let me know if you need the encryption process step-by-step.

28. Block Level Diagram for DES Round and Complementation Proof

The block level diagram for one round of DES involves:

1. Initial permutation (IP) of the plaintext.

2. The input block is divided into left and right halves.
3. The right half is expanded and XORed with the subkey.
4. The result is passed through S-boxes and P-boxes (permutation).
5.

The left half is XORed with the result and swapped.

The proof involves showing that if the plaintext and key are complemented, the resulting
ciphertext is also complemented.

29. Explain AES Algorithm and Differences from DES

AES Algorithm:

 AES is a symmetric block cipher that operates on 128-bit blocks using key sizes of 128,
192, or 256 bits.
 It uses multiple rounds of substitution (S-box), permutation (ShiftRows), and mixing
(MixColumns).

Difference from DES:

 AES is more secure due to its larger key sizes and more rounds of encryption.
 DES uses a 56-bit key, while AES uses keys of 128, 192, or 256 bits.
30. State and Prove Fermat’s Theorem

Fermat’s Little Theorem states that if pp is a prime number and aa is an integer not divisible by
pp, then:

ap−1≡1(modp)a^{p-1} \equiv 1 \pmod{p}

Find 'a' for 9794mod 739794 \mod 73:

9794÷73≈134,9794−134×73=9794−9782=129794 \div 73 \approx 134, \quad 9794 - 134 \times

73 = 9794 - 9782 = 12

So, a≡12mod 73a \equiv 12 \mod 73.

31. RSA Algorithm and Private Key Calculation for A (p=13, q=17, public
key=35)

RSA Algorithm Steps:

1. n=p×q=13×17=221n = p \times q = 13 \times 17 = 221.

2. ϕ(n)=(p−1)(q−1)=12×16=192\phi(n) = (p-1)(q-1) = 12 \times 16 = 192.
3. Public key e=35e = 35.
4. Find dd such that e×d≡1(modϕ(n))e \times d \equiv 1 \pmod{\phi(n)}.
35×d≡1(mod192)35 \times d \equiv 1 \pmod{192}. Solving for dd, we find d=11d = 11.

So, the private key is d=11d = 11.