predicate logic and quantifiers

discrete structures 1 | group 3 | bscs 1-3

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🍮 . . . OVERVIEW
# QUANTIFIERS O2

​ Predicate Logic ➔​ Quantifiers are used with predicates to

​ Quantifiers know on what extent a predicate is true
​ Proofs and Techniques over a range of elements.
➔​ Quantifiers tell us how many objects in
a given domain satisfy a predicate.
There are two main types of quantifiers:
# PREDICATE LOGIC O1 ◆​ Universal Quantifiers
◆​ Existential Quantifiers
➔​ Predicate logic is the description of the
property a variable may have.
➔​ A predicate is an expression of one or 2.1 Universal Quantifiers
more variables defined on some specific
domain.
➔​ Represents "for all" or "for every".
◆​ helps us describe what
➔​ ∀
something is or does rather than
➔​ If ∀x P(x) is true, it means P(x) is true
just stating a fact.
for every possible x in the domain.
◆​ helps us analyze and structure
◆​ "All foxes are sly."
statements based on
Predicate:
conditions and relationships
F(x) = "x is a fox"
between objects.
S(x) = "x is sly"
●​ Mathematical
representation: ∀x [F(x)
→ S(x)]
○​ Meaning: "For all
x, if x is a fox,
then x is sly."
➔​ "All students passed the Discrete
Mathematics exam."
◆​ ∀x [S(x) → P(x)]
●​ If x is a student,
then x passed the
exam.

.☘︎🍮 ́˖

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2.2 Existential Quantifiers 2.3 && Exercise

➔​ Represents "there exists" or "some". ➔​ Let I(x) be the statement “x spends

➔​ ∃ more than five hours every Wednesday
➔​ If ∃x P(x) is true, it means at least one in computer programming class,” where
x exists that satisfies P(x). the domain for x consists of IT
◆​ "Some students are taking online students. Express each of these
classes." quantifications in English.
●​ Predicate: 1. ∃x = I(x)
2. ∀x = I(x)
S(x) = "x is a 3. ∃x = ¬I(x)
student" 4. ∀x = ¬I(x)
O(x) = "x is taking
➔​ ∃x I(x) → "There is at least one IT
online classes"
student who spends more than five
●​ Mathematical hours every Wednesday in computer
representation: programming class."
○​ ∃x [S(x) ∧ O(x)] ➔​ ∀x I(x) → "All IT students spend more
○​ Meaning: "There than five hours every Wednesday in
is at least one computer programming class."
student who is ➔​ ∃x ¬I(x) → "There is at least one IT
taking online student who does not spend more than
classes." five hours every Wednesday in
computer programming class."
➔​ ∀x ¬I(x) → "No IT student spends
🍮 ́˖
.☘︎
more than five hours every Wednesday
in computer programming class."

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# PROOFS & TECHNIQUES O3 3.1 && Rules of Inferences for Quantifiers

➔​ Proof is a step-by-step process using ➔​ Understanding quantifier rules is

logical reasoning. essential for constructing valid
◆​ It reduces a problem to a known arguments and avoiding common
truth. fallacies.
◆​ Must convince readers that the ➔​ Types of rules of inferences for
conclusion is correct. quantifiers:
➔​ A valid argument for predicate logic is ◆​ Universal Instantiation
not needed to be a tautology to be valid. ◆​ Universal Generalization
◆​ WHY? ◆​ Existential Generalization
◆​ Existential Instantiation
Premises:

○​ All dogs are 🍮 ́˖

.☘︎
mammals. (True)
○​ Max is a dog.
3.1 Universal Instantiation
(True)

Conclusion: ➔​ If something is true for all elements,

then it is true for a specific element.
○​ Max is a mammal. ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
(Follows
➔​ ∴ 𝑃(𝑐)
logically → Valid ◆​ ∀x P(x) → P(c) for some c in
argument) the domain.
◆​ "All people can read" → "Ana
## This is valid, but it’s not a tautology can read."
because it depends on the truth of the
premises. If the premises were false, the
conclusion might not hold. 3.2 Universal Generalization

➔​ If something is true for any random

element, then it is true for all elements.
𝑃(𝑐) 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
➔​ ∴ ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
◆​ P(c) → ∀x P(x)
◆​ If every number is greater than
zero, then all numbers are
greater than zero.

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3.3 Existential Instantiation

➔​ If at least one element satisfies a

property, we can assign a variable to it.
𝑃(𝑐) 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
➔​ ∴ ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
◆​ ∃x P(x) → P(c) for some c in
the domain.
◆​ Example: "Someone got the
highest score" → "Let’s call her
Maria."

3.4 Existential Generalization

➔​ If a specific element satisfies a

property, then at least one element
satisfies it.
∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
➔​ ∴ 𝑃(𝑐)
◆​ P(c) → ∃x P(x)
◆​ Example: "Maria got a 1.0 in
Discrete Math" → "Someone got
a 1.0 in Discrete Math."

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