Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203.

Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 1

INTERNETWORKING
(IP)

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 2

Outline
• Internetworks
– IPv4
• Address Resolution
• IPv6

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 3

IP Networks
• IP is the most widely deployed network layer protocol
worldwide.
• Emerging from a U.S. government sponsored networking
project for the U.S. Department of Defense begun in the 1960s,
the TCP/IP suite has evolved and scaled to support networks
from hundreds of computers to hundreds of millions today.
• The number of devices or hosts on the Internet exceeded 730
million as of early 2010 with average annual additions of over
75 million hosts per year.
• The fact that the Internet has scaled rather seamlessly from a
research project to a network of over 730 million computers is a
testament to the vision of its developers and robustness of their
underlying technology design.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 4

IP Networks
• Growth of Internet hosts during 1993-2010

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 5

IP Networks
• IP was “initially” defined in 1980 in Request for Comments
(RFC) 760 and 791, edited by Jon Postel.
• Postel pointed out in his preface, that RFC 791 is based on six
earlier editions of the ARPAa Internet Protocol, though it is
referred to in the RFC as version 4 (IPv4).
• RFC 791 states that the Internet Protocol performs two basic
functions: addressing and fragmentation.
– Addressing assures unique addressability of hosts
– Fragmentation deals with splitting messages into a number
of IP packets so that they can be transmitted over networks
that have limited packet size constraints, and reassembly of
packets at the destination in the proper order.
a Advanced Research Projects Agency, a U.S. Department of Defense agency

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 6

INTERNETWORKS

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 7

Network
• Hosts are connected via a cloud.

• Its nerve veins are based on TCP/IP

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 8

IPv4
• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision in the
development of the Internet Protocol (IP) and the first version
of the protocol to have been widely deployed.
• Described in IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
publication RFC 791 (September 1981), replacing an earlier
definition (RFC 760, January 1980).
• It is a connectionless protocol for use on packet-switched Link
Layer networks
• It operates on a best effort delivery model, in that it does not
guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing or
avoidance of duplicate delivery.
• These aspects, including data integrity, are addressed by an
upper layer transport protocol, such as the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP)

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 9

Internetworks
• Important to be able to interconnect networks to build new
and larger ones.
• LAN approaches are limited: they do not scale well and they
cannot handle heterogeneity.
• An internetwork is an arbitrary collection of networks
interconnected to provide host-to-host packet delivery service.
• The networks are interconnected with special nodes called
routers, and gateways.
• IP is the main protocol for interconnecting: invented by Kahn
and Cerf (December 1997: presented with National Medal of
Technology by Bill Clinton, “for creating and sustaining
development of Internet Protocols and continuing to provide
leadership in the emerging industry of internetworking”).

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 10

Network 3
Network 2
H2
H1
Ethernet
Ethernet
R3
R1 Host Network 4
Router
Point−to−Point

R2
FDDI
Host

Network 1

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 11

Connecting H1 and H2
H1 H2
TCP TCP
R1 R2 R3
IP IP IP
IP IP
ETH FDDI FDDI PPP PPP ETH
ETH ETH

1. Leave H1 from Network 1 Ethernet via Router R1

2. From Router R1 to FDDI token ring.
3. From FDDI token ring to R2.
4. From router R2 to router R3 via Point-to-Point Network.
5. From router R3 to Network 3 Ethernet.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 12

Service Model (Ability to Run over Anything!)

• The philosophy was to give a protocol that will be
undemanding enough for just about any existing technology.
• The service model has two parts:
1. Addressing Scheme.
2. Datagram delivery connectionless model.
• The addressing scheme provides a way to identify all hosts.
• The datagram delivery scheme is called best effort because it
makes no guarantees.
• Datagrams are frames that are sent in a connectionless manner.
Of course, they must include sufficient information to enable
delivery. IPv4 Datagrams consist of a header plus a number
of data bytes.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 13

IP
• IP is the vehicle for traffic management.
• IP based internets were designed to support delay insensitive
applications.
• Today they face the following design requirements.
– Control congestion
– Provide low delay
– Provide high throughput
– Support QoS
– Provide fair service
• All these issues fall under the category of traffic management.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 14

IPv4 Header
Bits 0 4 8 16 19 31
Version IHL TOS Total Length

ID Flags Fragment Offset

20 Bytes

Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source Address (32 Bits)

Destination Address (32 Bits)

Options + Padding

IPv4 HEADER

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 15

IPv4 Header
• IP with no options is 20 Bytes.
• IHL is header length in 32-bit words.
• TOS (Type Of Service): provides guidance on selecting next
hop and relative allocation of router resources.
• TOS subfield: provides route selection, subnetwork service,
queuing discipline. These are specified with “certain rules”.
• Procedence Subfield: indicates the degree of urgency from
highest level of “Network Control” to lowest level “Routine”.
These provide appropriate Queue Service and Congestion
Control.
• IPv4 options: Security, Timestamping, Source routing, Route
Recording.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 16

IPv4 TOS Field

Bits 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Precedence TOS 0

IPv4 TOS−field

Precedence TOS
111 Network Control 1000 Minimize Delay
110 Internetwork Control 0000 Maximize Throughput
101 Critical 0010 Maximize Reliability
100 Flash Override 0001 Minimize Monetary Cost
011 Flash 0000 Normal Service
010 Immediate
001 Priority
000 Routine

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 17

Fragmentation/Reassembly
H1 H2
TCP TCP
R1 R2 R3
IP IP IP
IP IP
ETH FDDI FDDI PPP PPP ETH
ETH ETH

ETH IP 1400 FDDI IP 1400 PPP IP 512 ETH IP 512

PPP IP 512 ETH IP 512
PPP IP 376 ETH IP 376

Of course, fragmentation and reassmbly requires software code that

performs the required transformations from one packet format to
another.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 18

MTU (Max Transmission Unit) Fragmentation/Reassembly

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 19

IP Addressing
• In addition to physical addresses (contained in NICs) nodes
have 32 bit IP addresses.
• It is a two level hierarchy consisting of the net ID and the Host
ID: net ID identifies the network the host is connected.
• All hosts connected to the same network have the same net ID.
• IP addresses look like:

Class Net−ID Host−ID

• The lengths of Class, Net-ID, and Host-ID are variable, but the
total length is 32 bits.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 20

IP Addressing
• There are five classes of addresses: A, B, C, D, E.
Class Net ID Host ID
A 7 bits 24 bits
B 14 bits 16 bits
C 21 bits 8 bits
• D is used for multicasting and E for experiments.
• IDs with all 0s or all 1s are used for broadcasting:
– immediately after booting up a host may not know its ID.
– So host will transmit packets with all 0s while trying to find
out correct ID.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 21

IP Addressing
• Addresses broken into four bytes and written as: X.Y.Z.W in
decimal: 128.135.68.5 = 10000000.10000111.01000100.00000101.

0123 8 16 31
Class A 0 Net ID Host ID

Class B 10 Net ID Host ID

Class C 110 Net ID Host ID

Class D 1110 Multicast Address

Class E 1111 Reserved for Experiments

• Class 10, Net ID 00000010000111, Host ID 0100010000000101.

• 127.Y.Z.W is a special “loopback” address: packet with this
address returns back to host

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 22

H H H
H H
Ethernet
H
Token
Ring G G

H
R

H H
R Ethernet

Ethernet

H H H H

H = Host G = Gateway R = Router

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 23

129.7.0.1 129.7.0.2 129.7.12.1

223.3.7.0 135.17.1.1
H H H Class B
H

135.17.65.33
Ethernet H
129.7.0.0 135.17.1.2
129.7.14.3 222.13.6.1 222.13.6.5 H
Token
Ring G
223.3.7.0 223.3.7.12 222.13.6.0 G 135.17.1.6
Class C 135.17.2.45 H
R
208.13.6.0 135.17.3.6
208.13.6.0
H H
223.3.7.5 R 208.13.6.1
Ethernet
123.12.3.1 135.17.0.0
Ethernet Class B
123.0.0.0
Class A H H H H
123.12.3.4 123.13.22.15
H = Host G = Gateway R = Router

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 24

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 25

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 26

IP Addressing and the Network

• An IP address defines the host’s connection to its network.
• A device connected to more than one network (e.g., router) will
have more than one internet address. In fact, a different
address for each network connected to it.
• To reach a host on the internet:
– first we reach the network using the first portion of the
address,
– second we reach the host itself using the last portion of the
address.
• Hence, Classes A, B, C have only two levels!

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 27

Two-level Hierearchy
A network may have a Class B address.
135.27.12.2 135.17.12.5 135.17.22.1 135.27.23.1 135.17.23.5

135.27.0.0
Class B
Because it is a two level hierachy they cannot be grouped into a
“less flat” scheme.
Solution: Subnetting!

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 28

Subnetting
The rest of the internet does not need to be aware of the subnet
division! The Router is aware of subnetting!

135.17.12.5

135.27.12.2
135.27.0.0
Class B
R

135.17.22.1 135.17.23.5
135.27.23.1

135.27 is the destination net-id, while 22.1 is a host-id.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 29

More Levels
Now we have three levels in the hierarchy:
• Net-id (135.17)
• Subnet-id (12, 22, 23)
• Host-id
16
10 Net ID Host ID
Class B
10 Net ID Subnet ID Host ID

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 30

More Levels: Example

As an example consider an IP address with Net ID 150.100.
If an organization has many LANs each of less than 100 hosts then
• 7 bits suffice to represent hosts within each subnet, and
• remaining 9 bits are left to identify subnets within organization.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 31

IP Subnetting/Masking
• Subnetting provides routing boundaries for communications
and routing protocol updates.

• Subnetting is facilitated by specifying a network mask along

with the network address.
• Class A network has a mask length of 8, a class B of 16, and C
of 24. By essentially extending the length of the network
number that routers need to examine in each packet, a larger
number of networks can be supported, and address space can
be allocated more flexibly.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 32

IP Addressing and Subnets: Masking

• A subnet mask separates the IP address into the network and
host addresses (< network >< host >).
• Subnetting further divides the host part of an IP address into a
subnet and host address (< network >< subnet >< host >) if
additional subnetwork is needed.
• Masking extracts the address of the physical network from an
IP address.
• If there is no subnet it merely extracts the network address
from the IP address.
• If there is subnet division then it extracts the subnet address
from the IP address.
• Masking is also used to “hide” addresses.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 33

Global Connectivity and Scalability: Subnets

It is a mistake to assign one network number per physical network.
Address assignment inefficiencies arise:
1. A network with three nodes may be using an entire class C
network address (thereby wasting 252 useful addresses).
2. A network with slightly more than 255 hosts is using a class
address thereby wasting 64,000 addresses.
3. The more forwarding numbers exist the larger the forwarding
tables.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 34

Subneting
• Subnetting takes a single IP network address and allocates it
to several physical networks referred to as subnets, e.g., a
University Campus, Company, etc.
• Subnets should be physically close to each other.
• Knowing the addresses of a few entry gateways should be
enough.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 35

Subnet Masks
1. The mechanism allowing a network number to be shared
among multiple networks is called subnet masking.
2. This gives rise to the subnet number: all hosts on the same
network have the same subnet number.
3. Hosts on different physical networks share single network #.
4. Subnet masks introduce another level of hierarchy into
IP-addressing.
5. Subnet masks written down like IP addresses, e.g.
255.255.255.3

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 36

Subnet Masks
To share a single class B address use a subnet mask, say
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
I.e., lowest 8 bits are the host numbers.
Address now has three parts: network part, subnet part, and host
part.
16 16
Network Number Host Number
Class B Address

24 1s 8 0s
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Network # Subnet ID Host ID

Subnet Address

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 37

Subnet Masks (Example)

Suppose a router is given a destination address D and a pair (I, M )
where I is an IP address and M a mask.
Router verifies the condition I = D & M (bitwise AND) to test
whether or not D belongs to the same subnet.
For example, in

I = 128.10.0.0 = 10000000 00001010 00000000 00000000

M = 255.255.0.0 = 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
D = 128.10.2.3 = 10000000 00001010 00000010 00000011

the mask M is used as follows: it “matches” the first sixteen bits of

the IP address I (ignoring the rest).

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 38

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.128

Subnet Number: 128.96.34.0
128.96.34.15
H1
128.96.34.1
R1
128.96.34.130
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.128
Subnet Number: 128.96.34.128

H2 128.96.34.139
128.96.34.129
R2
128.96.33.1
H3
128.96.33.14
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Subnet Number: 128.96.33.0

Routers R1 and R2 have a different subnet number for each subnet

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 39

Subnet Masks and Subnet Number

1. Hosts are configured with an address and the subnet mask.
2. The bitwise AND of these two numbers defines subnet number
of the given host as well as all the hosts in the same subnet.

Host H1 H2
Subnet Number 128.96.34.15 128.96.34.139
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.128 255.255.255.128
BIT-WISE AND 128.96.34.0 128.96.34.128
H1 forwards to H2: H1 calculates AND of H2’s subnet address
(128.96.34.139) with subnet mask (255.255.255.128). If result is
equal to H1’s Subnet Number (128.96.34.128) then it is deliverd to
NextHop for H2 of its forwarding table. If it is not equal to H1’s
Subnet Number then packet is forwarded to H1’s default router.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 40

Masking: Example
If IP address 150.100.12.176 arrives from outside use a binary AND
between IP address and mask 255.255.255.125 to determine subnet.

IP address 10010110.01100100.00001100.10110000
mask 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000
AND 10010110.01100100.00001100.10000000

IP-address Mask Network/Subnetwork-address

141.14.3.22 255.255.0.0 141.14.0.0 (without subnetting)
141.14.3.22 255.255.255.0 141.14.3.0 (with subnetting)

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 41

IP Datagram Forwarding Algorithm:

Source → Destination
To forward IP packets:
1. Participating nodes compare network part of destination
address to see if they are connected to same network as
destination.
2. If match occurs and destination is in same physical network the
packet can be directly delivered.
3. If node is not connected to same physical network all
destination datagrams are sent to a router (in general there
could be more than one router).
4. The router does this by consulting a forwarding table.
5. There is a also a default address used if none of the entries of
the forwarding table match the destination address.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 42

ADDRESS RESOLUTION

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 43

Address Resolution
• How to re-translate an IP address to an address understood by
a local host, e.g. an Ethernet address?
• Each host maintains a table of address pairs:
(IP-address, Physical-address)
Table can be managed either by an administrator or better yet
dynamically by the host.
• Translation accomplished by ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol).
• ARP enables hosts to build such tables. Moreover, ARP
performs updating approximately every 15 minutes.
• ARP performs queries that take advantage of broadcasting
capabilities of local networks, like Ethernet.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 44

Mapping IP-Addresses ↔ Ethernet-Addresses

0 8 16 31

Hardware Type = 1 ProtocolType = 0x0800

HLen = 48 PLen = 32 Operation

SourceHardwareAddress

SourceHardwareAddress SourceProtocolAddress

SourceProtocolAddress DestHardwareAddress

DestHardwareAddress

DestProtocolAddress

HardwareType is physical network (e.g., Ethernet), ProtocolType

is higher level protocol (e.g., IP), HLen, PLen are the Hardware
and Protocol address lengths, Operation specifies if this is a request
for response.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 45

IPv4: Not Enough Addresses

• Unlike Ethernet addresses, IP addresses cannot be configured
once and for all into a host at manufacturing.
• Before it can start sending packets the host also needs to know
the address of a default router.
• Operating sytems enable IP address configuration. Configuring
them directly and/or manually can be a lot of work.
• The protocol that automates this process is called DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
• Every administrative domain (e.g., large company) has at least
one DHCP server: DHCP saves the administrator from having
to walk around each host.
• Information is stored in a table.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 46

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Newly booted hosts sends a DHCP discover message through a
DHCP relay.
Unicast to Server
DHCP Other DHCP
Relay Networks Server
Broadcast

Host

Used widely by Internet Providers because it maximizes usage of

their limited number of IP addresses.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 47

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 48

DHCP Packet Format

Operation HType HLen Hops

Xid
Secs Flags
ciaddr (client IP address)
yiaddr (your IP address)
siaddr
giaddr
chaddr (client hardware address)
sname (server name)
file
options (defaults, etc)

Message sent using UDP (runs over IP): it provides a

demultiplexing key that says I am a DHCP packet.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 49

How DHCP Works

Host broadcasts a DHCP Discover message in its physical network.
Network server(s) respond with a DHCP Offer message.
Host selects one of the offers and broadcasts a DHCP Request
message (that includes IP address of server).
Server acknowledges message with a DHCP ACK and assigns IP
address for a period of time T with two thresholds T1 , T2 (usually,
T1 = T /2 and T2 = 7T /8).
When T1 expires host attempts to extend lease by sending DHCP
Request to same server. If accepted host also gets new values
T 0 , T10 , T20 If host does not receive DHCP ACK by time T2 then it
broadcasts to any server in the network.
If no ACK is received by time T then host must relinquish old IP
address and begin anew.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 50

Reporting Errors
• Whenever a router or host is unable to deliver a message, IP
reports errors.
• IP has a companion protocol, called Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) that defines error messages, including
unreachable destination host, failure of datagram arrival, etc
• Check in your UNIX machine the command ping!
• ICMP control messages include: ICMP-Redirect, that tells the
source host that there is a better route to destination.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 51

Tunneling
Old Virtual Private Networks



 
A
C
B



D 
 F



 E
Network1

 Network2




D




C





E

A 


 


  B

Physical 

  F
Virtual
Links Circuits

Two separate private networks, Network1 and Network2, can share

common switches.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 52

Tunneling
Router Router
Internetwork
Network 1 R1 R2 Network 2
tunnel
IP Header 10.0.0.1
IP Header Dest = 10.0.0.1 IP Header
Dest = 2.x IP Header Dest = 2.x
Payload Dest = 2.x Payload
Payload

Original packet is encapsulated, receives a new IP header and the

address of the destination router. It is then transported through
the Internetwork. At the destination router it is decapsulated and
forwarded to its “local” desination.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 53

IPv6

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 54

IPv6
• Surge in demand for IP address space stimulated the IETFa to
define a new version of the Internet Protocol that would
provide more addressing capacity to meet then and anticipated
future address requirements.
• Every Regional Internet Registry (RIR) had issued notifications
to the Internet community at large that IPv4 space availability
is limited and will be exhausted within “a few years.”
• The primary objective for version 6 was essentially to redesign
version 4 based on the prior 20 years of experience with IPv4.

a the engineering and standards body of the Internet

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 55

IPv6 Wishlist
• IPv4 not suffiecient!
– Support for real time services.
– Security support.
– Autoconfiguration.
– Enhanced routing functionality (e.g., mobility support).
• Also a transition plan IPv4 → IPv6 was necessary.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 56

IPv4 Address Depletion

• February 3, 2011: in a ceremony in Miami, the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) assigned the last batch of
address blocks to the Regional Internet Registries (RIRs): over
80 million combined potential addresses (officially depleting the
global pool of completely fresh blocks of addresses).
• APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15
April 2011.
• There remains a small amount of address space reserved for the
transition to IPv6, which will be allocated in a much more
restricted way.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 57

IPv6 Header
• IPv6: designed to accomodate higher speeds. IPv4 uses 32 bit
address space. IPv6 uses 128 bit address. IPv4 can address up
to 232 (= 4 billion) nodes. IPv6 can address up to 2128 = (232 )4
hosts.
• IPv6 Format: An IPv6 packet has the form: IPv6-header,
extension field, · · · , extension header, format level PDU
(Protocol Data Unit).
• IPv6 header:
• Priority Field: defines types of traffic.
• Flow labels: e.g. multimedia traffic consists of audio flow, video
flow, data flow.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 58

IPv6 Header
Has less fields than IPv4 (for less processing).
Bits 0 4 8 16 19 31
Version Priotity Flow Label

Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit

40 Bytes

Source Address (128 Bits)

Destination Address (128 Bits)

IPv6 HEADER

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 59

IPv6 Addressing (No Classes Being Used)

Prefix Use Prefix Use

0000 0000 Reserved 0001 Unassigned
0000 0001 Unassigned 001 Global Unicast
0000 001 NSAP allocation 1111 1110 10 Link Local Use
0000 010 IPX allocation 1111 1110 11 Site Local Use
0000 011 Unassigned 1111 1111 Multicast
0000 1 Unassigned
Large address chunks unassigned to allow for future growth.
NSAP used for ISO, IPX for Novell. Link local and Site local
enable address construction without concern for global addresses
(useful for autoconfigurations), Multicast is for multicast
addresses, by zero extending with a byte of 0s one assigns
IPv4-compatible and IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 60

IPv6 Packet with Extension Headers

IPv6 treats options as extension headers appearing in certain order.
Thus routers can determine relevant optons quickly.
Size (Bytes)
IPv6 Header 40
Hop−by−Hop Options Header Variable
Routing Header Variable
Fragment Header 8
Authentication Header Variable

Encapsulation Security Header Variable

Destination Options Header Variable
TCP Header 20

DATA Variable

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 61

Assigning Addresses
• Three types of addresses: Unicast, Anycast (different
interfaces), Multicast (different nodes).
• Hop-by-Hop Options Header: carries optional information that
must be examined (like next header, header extension length,
options).
• Fragment Header: fragmentation is done only by source nodes
not routers. Nodes perform a path discovery algorithm to
determine the smaller max transmission unit. With this
knowledge source nodes fragments data. Fragment header has
several flags and data itself.
• Routing Header: contains a list of one or more intermediate
nodes to be visited along the way. Fields include: Next Header,
Header Extension Length, Routing Type, etc Destinations
Options Header: carries optional information.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 62

IPv6 Address Notation

• Hexadecimal digits are being used; represented in eight 16-bit
blocks. block1:block2:block3:block4:block5:block6:block7:block8
• One set of contiguous 0s can be omitted: block1::block7:block8
• An IPv4-mapped address, like 128.33.87.51 is now written as
:: 00F F : 128.33.87.51
• 001 prefix used for global unicast addressing.
• 010 prefix used for IPv6 provider based address. Here, registry
IDs are provided as common identifiers, e.g., European,
American, etc.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 63

IPv6 Address Notation

• DHCP provides IPv4 autoconfiguration. So does IPv6.. This is
done as follows:
1. obtain correct subnet address prefix (through a router), and
2. unique interface ID (like Ethernet address).
• IPv6 provides for anycast addresses: selects one of a set of any.
Also multicast and security provided.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 64

Transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 65

Tunneling in IPv6

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 66

IPv6 Neighbor Discovery

• Enables a node to discover the IPv6 subnet address on which it
is connected.
• Enables IPv6 nodes to automatically identify routers on the
subnet.
• The discovery process entails each router periodically sending
advertisements on each of its configured subnets indicating its
IP address, its ability to provide default gateway functionality,
its link layer address, the network prefix(es) served on the link
including corresponding prefix length and valid address
lifetime, as well as other configuration parameters.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 67

IPv6 Deployment (1/4)

• The introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in
the Internet routing and IP address allocation methods in 1993
and the extensive use of network address translation (NAT)
delayed the inevitable IPv4 address exhaustion, but the final
phase of exhaustion started on February 3, 2011.
• Despite a decade long development and implementation history
as a Standards Track protocol, general worldwide deployment
was still in its infancy: as of October 2011, about 3 % of
domain names and 12 % of the networks on the internet have
IPv6 protocol support.
• IPv6 has been implemented on all major operating systems in
use in commercial, business, and home consumer environments.
• IoT (Internet of Things) is giving a significant boost to IPv6.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 68

IPv6 Deployment (2/4)

• Since 2008, the domain name system can be used in IPv6 at
major web sites like Google, although sometimes with extra
configuration.
• IPv6 was first used in a major world event during the 2008
Summer Olympic Games, the largest showcase of IPv6
technology since the inception of IPv6.
• Countries like China or the Federal U.S. Government are also
starting to require support for IPv6 on their equipment.
• Finally, modern cellular telephone specifications mandate IPv6
operation and deprecate IPv4 as an optional capability.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 69

IPv6 Deployment (3/4)

• IPv6 deployment continues to increase around the world.
• As of 2018
– Over 25% of all Internet-connected networks advertise IPv6
connectivity.
– 49 countries deliver more than 5% of traffic over IPv6, with
new countries joining all the time.
– In 24 countries IPv6 traffic exceeds 15%.

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 70

IPv6 Deployment (4/4)

• Countries with Pv6 Deployment greater than 15% as of 2018.a

a Source: Internet Society

November 6, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 71

References
• T. Rooney, Rooney-IP Address Management Principles and
Practice, IEEE, 2011.
• RFC 760, DoD standard Internet Protocol, January 1980
• RFC 761, DoD standard Transmission Control Protocol, 1980.

November 6, 2019