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Lecture 3 Logics

Logic is the science of valid reasoning, essential in various intellectual activities, particularly in philosophy, mathematics, and computer science. It involves propositions that can be true or false, with truth categorized into objective and subjective types, and arguments that are valid if true premises lead to a true conclusion. Inductive and deductive logic represent two reasoning approaches, with inductive logic forming general conclusions from specific observations and deductive logic deriving specific conclusions from general premises.

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11 views

Lecture 3 Logics

Logic is the science of valid reasoning, essential in various intellectual activities, particularly in philosophy, mathematics, and computer science. It involves propositions that can be true or false, with truth categorized into objective and subjective types, and arguments that are valid if true premises lead to a true conclusion. Inductive and deductive logic represent two reasoning approaches, with inductive logic forming general conclusions from specific observations and deductive logic deriving specific conclusions from general premises.

Uploaded by

Khadija Fazal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Lec#3

Chapter #2 Nature of logics

Logic is a science of valid reasoning.All the places where reasoning is


needed, logic is needed. The more accurately we use our reasoning, the
more effective is our work in that area. So all those who think, use logic
knowingly or unknowingly.

Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the


disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, and computer science.

In philosophy, the study of logic falls in the area of epistemology, which asks:
“How do we know what we know?”

Logic has origins in several ancient civilizations, including ancient India,


China and Greece. In west, Logic was established as a discipline by Aristotle,
who established its fundamental place in philosophy .

Proposition, is a statement used in logical arguments. This means, in logic,


a statement is called a proposition. A proposition is a statement that can be
either true or false. Here are some examples of propositions:

“The sky is blue”

“Grass is green”

“2 + 5 = 5”

“Four is even”

Truth, is the agreement of facts mentioned in an argument with reality.


Examples. It is a truth (true) that a dog is an animal. It is untrue (or false)
that a dog is a plant.

Truth is the property of beliefs, assertions, thoughts, sentences, or


propositions that agree with facts or state what is the case. Truth is the goal
of belief, and falsity is a fault.

There are two types of truth in philosophy:

Objective truth

Truth that is absolute, regardless of perception, understanding, or opinion

Subjective truth
Truth that is relative, where the subject or observer’s perception of things
determines the truthfulness

Validity, is the appropriateness of relationship between various parts of


argument. an argument is valid if and only if it is necessary that if all of the
premises are true, then the conclusion is true; if all the premises are true,
then the conclusion must be true; it is impossible that all the premises are
true and the conclusion is false.

Example “All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; thus Socrates is mortal” is
valid with all true premises and hence true conclusion.

In logic, an argument is a series of statements that use reasons to support a


conclusion.

Argument comes from the 14th-century French word of the same spelling,
meaning “statements and reasoning in support of a proposition." An
argument can be a fact used as evidence to show that something is true, like
a study that shows exercise improves certain health conditions — an
argument for being more active.

Premise 1: A car will not run without gas. Premise 2: I don’t have any gas in
my car. Conclusion: My car will not run. In the above example, both premises
are true (facts) and the conclusion is valid

Inductive and deductive logic are two different ways of reasoning that differ
in their approach, the type of conclusions they reach, and the strength of
those conclusions:

Inductive logic

A bottom-up approach that starts with specific observations and facts to form
general conclusions or predictions. Inductive conclusions are probabilistic,
meaning they may be incorrect even if the premises are true. For example,
you might conclude that all green apples give you a stomachache after
eating one that does.

Deductive logic

A top-down approach that starts with general premises to form specific


conclusions. Deductive conclusions are certain, meaning they must be true if
the premises are true. For example, you might conclude that soup is a
beverage if it’s defined as “drinkable through a straw”.

Here are some other differences between inductive and deductive logic:
How conclusions are reached

Inductive reasoning draws conclusions from observation, while deductive


reasoning draws conclusions by testing an existing theory.

Statements Inference, is a set of propositions or statements where, on the


basis of one or more statements one statement is obtained as a conclusion.

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