Unit 3:

BIOTECH
Genetic Engineering, Cloning and Bioethics
 Outlook

• I. The Genetic Code

• II. The Human Genome
• III. Reproductive Technologies
• IV. Cloning
• V. Stem Cells
• VI. CRISPR-cas9
• VII. Bioethics
THE GENETIC CODE
The Genetic Code What it is

The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded within genetic
material (D.N.A.) is translated into proteins by living cells.

The D.N.A. molecule

⬇ DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) is a

macro-molecule arranged into a
ladder-like structure called double
helix.

⬇ A molecule of DNA is made up of

millions of tiny subunits called
Nucleotides.

⬇ Each nucleotide consists of:

• Phosphate group
• Pentose sugar
• Nitrogenous base
The Genetic Code What it is made of

Nucleotides

Monomers that make up DNA

nitrogenous base

phosphate group

pentose sugar
The Genetic Code What is made of

Nucleotides

There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: A, T, C and G

A T

Adenine Thymine

C G

Cytosine Guanine
The Genetic Code What is made of

A T

C G

T A

C G

A T

G C

T A
The Genetic Code What is made of

Nucleotides

Each nitrogenous base will only bond with one other specific base

A T
Because of this complementary base
pairing, the order of the bases in one G
strand determines the order of the bases
C
in the other strand:
T A
Adenine always pairs up with Thymine
Cytosine always pairs up with Guanine C G
Complementarity of bases provides high T
stability to the molecule → reduced
A
copying “errors” (mutations)
G C

T A
The Genetic Code What it does

Genes

One specific gene is made of a group of several specific nucleotides,

sequenced in a specific order.
⬇ A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a
protein.
⬇ Each gene has a unique sequence of
bases.
⬇ This unique sequence of bases may code
for the production of more than one protein
through a process called alternative
splicing
⬇ It is these proteins and combination of
proteins that give us a unique phenotype.

Example of a gene sequence

The Genetic Code What it does

Gene Manifestation

Gene Protein Trait

Physical
eye color, hair color, complexion…
Behavioral
innate attitudes Predisposition
…to certain deseases or metabolic
actions
A gene encodes the instructions
to synthesize proteins
⇪

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/oldtour
THE HUMAN GENOME
PROJECT
The Human Genome Foreword
6. Body
Each of the cells becomes specialized by obeying just
some of the instructions in the DNA. Blood, muscle, 1. The four letters
bone, organs are examples of that. The body is built All genetic code is spelled
from 100 trillion of these cells. out with just four chemical
letters, or bases: adenine
(A), thymine (T), cytosine
(C) and guanine (G). The
human genome has ~ 3
billion base pairs.
5. Nucleus and Cell
The 46 chromosomes
are in the nucleus of
most cells in the human
2. DNA
body. Nearly every cell
The base pairs form the
in the body contains the
DNA double helix. The
full DNA code for
sequences of bases are
producing a human.
the code for life. Each
cell in the human body
contains two meters of
DNA.

4. Chromosomes
The total number of genes is estimated to 3. Genes
be 30,000. They, and all the junk DNA, are Genes are special sequences of
wrapped up into bundles called hundreds or thousands of base pairs
chromosomes. Every human has 23 pairs of that code for the synthesis of all the
chromosomes, one set from each parent. proteins that the body needs.
The Human Genome The Project

THE HUMAN GENOME

PROJECT
Goals:

▪ Identify all the genes in human DNA

▪ Determine the sequences of the base pairs that make up human DNA
▪ Store this information in databases
▪ Address the ethical, legal, and social issues that may arise from the project

What does the human genome tell us?

▪ The human genome contains 3 billion chemical bases (A, C, T, and G)

▪ The average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary greatly
▪ The total number of genes is estimated at around 30,000
▪ Almost all (99.9%) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all people
▪ Functionality is still unknown for over 50% of discovered genes
⇪

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3OidRzGlhS8&authuser=0
The Human Genome The Project

How the Human Genome compares with other Organism’s

GENOME SIZE ESTIMATED

ORGANISM (Species)
(n° of bases) n° of GENES
Human (Homo sapiens) 3 billion 30,000

Laboratory mouse (M. musculus) 2.6 billion 30,000

Roundworm (C. elegans) 97 million 19,000

Fruit fly (D. melanogaster) 137 million 13,000

Yeast (S. cerevisiae) 12.1 million 6,000

Bacterium (E. coli) 4.6 million 3,200

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 9700 9

REPRODUCTIVE
TECHNOLOGIES
Reproductive Technologies Part I: The Infertility Puzzle

FERTILIZATION

⇪
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juhsB3RY1Oc
(Miracle of life- PBS.org)

1) The sperm’s journey from min 15

2) The first two weeks
Reproductive Technologies Part I: The Infertility Puzzle

Medical Infertility

…is the inability to achieve pregnancy after 12 months

of unprotected sexual intercourse.
• Distribution of Causes It affects 25% of couples
• Male attempting pregnancy
(40%)
• Low sperm count

• Low sperm mobility

• Other
(20%)
• STD’s, combined infertility, genetic disorders, unexplained factors...

• Female
(40%)
• Ovulation problems

• Tubal blockage

• Uterine problems

• Age-related factors
Reproductive Technologies Part I: The Infertility Puzzle

Medical Infertility

egg Ovaries factor

Failed fertilization

spermatozoon Uterus factor

Sperm factor
Reproductive Technologies Part I: The Infertility Puzzle

Medical Infertility

Female infertility
increases from 30
years of age to the
menopause
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

I.V.F.
In Vitro
Fertilization

Since the first ‘test-tube’ baby

Louise Brown was born in
Britain in 1978, more than
10 million children have
been born through assisted
reproduction world-wide.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

How does it work?

⬇ It works by recreating the natural event

shown in this image – sperm clustering
around a human egg– outside the body.

⬇ Scientists took 10 years to develop the

process.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Eggs 'growing'

⬇ During a healthy cycle, a

woman will release one or
perhaps two eggs which
should slowly travel down
the fallopian tubes, hopefully
meeting sperm on the way
so it can be fertilized.

An egg (orange), almost ready to be released by a woman's ovary

Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Injections

⬇ In IVF, doctors want the woman to

release as many eggs as possible to
improve the chances of having one or
more embryos to put back.

⬇ To do this, many patients are given

hormones to stimulate the ovaries to
produce more eggs and have them
ready for "collection" on a set day.

⬇ This means daily injections of hormones

which can have side-effects.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Egg retrieval

⬇ At the end of a month of hormones,

the eggs are ready to be retrieved.

⬇ Surgeons insert a laparoscope

through a tiny incision and remove
the egg cells and the eggs within
them.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Sperm

⬇ Fathers must produce a fresh sample, or

another source must be found.

⬇ This could be sperm from the father, frozen

prior to the treatment, or donor sperm from
an unrelated man.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Making the embryo

⬇ If the sperm and eggs are healthy, then

it is simply a question of combining them
in a laboratory dish.

⬇ However, if the sperm is not very active,

it may not be able to swim up to the
egg and fertilize it. Then, a single sperm is
injected directly into the egg.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Embryo development

⬇ Two days after fertilization, the embryos

are observed.

⬇ If they have four cells, they are

developing correctly.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Embryo transfer

⬇ Doctors now choose one, two, or in

exceptional circumstances, three of
the "best" embryos.

⬇ These are injected back into the

woman's reproductive system with the
hope that one will drop down,
implant, and begin to grow.
Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Reproductive Technologies Part II: Assisted Reproductive Technology

IVF: In Vitro Fertilization

Implanted fetus

⬇ Two weeks or so later, a pregnancy test

can be taken.

⬇ If it is positive, an ultrasound examination

may reveal this - a single "fetal sac"
(circled), a sign that an embryo has
implanted and is developing well.
Reproductive Technologies Part III: Risks and Uncertainties

Some researchers are questioning the safety of reproductive

technologies claiming that they may be linked to increased
rates of birth defects and rare genetic disorders.

Dolly the sheep – the world’s first cloned mammal was

euthanized 14th February, 2003
CLONING
Cloning Foreword

⬇ What is cloning?
⬇ Isn't it unnatural?
⬇ Does cloning work?
⬇ How does cloning work?
⬇ Can people be cloned?
⬇ What's the problem with cloning?

Are there human clones yet?

Of course!
Identical Twins are a type of
naturally occurring clones
Cloning Some facts about cloning in Nature…

What is cloning? Cloning is a type of asexual reproduction

Isn't it unnatural?

✓ Cloning isn't new. Nature's been doing it for billions of years with
bacteria, fungus and some plants
✓ Organisms like potatoes and grass send out shoots which can grow
into a whole new plant
✓ Organisms like moss or fungi send out spores that will eventually
develop clones of the original organism
✓ If you grow a plant from a cutting it's a type of cloning
✓ Identical twins are naturally-occurring clones of each other
Cloning Cloning in the Lab…

Does Artificial Cloning work?

In 1997 Dolly the sheep became the first ever cloned mammal.
However, it took 276 tries to get it right. She lived for six years and
gave birth to four lambs. Sheep normally live for 11-12 years.
Since Dolly, cows, pigs, monkeys, rodents, cats, mules, horses and
dogs have been cloned

How does it work?

Scientists transplant DNA from the cell of one animal into the cell of another which has
had its DNA taken out
Cloning Cloning in the Lab…
Cloning Cloning in the Lab…

Can people be cloned?

There's a lot of controversy

over this one.

In 2005, British scientists

announced they had
successfully cloned the
country's first human embryo.

It doesn't have to be a whole

human being which is
cloned:

✓ Scientists could copy our What's the problem with cloning?

cells and fix genes that
cause diseases.
About 98% of cloning efforts fail.
✓ Or new organs like skin or
Usually a cloned embryo dies before birth but
hearts could be grown to
sometimes afterwards too.
help people who are ill
Most of the survivors have potentially fatal heart or
lung problems or diseases like diabetes
STEM CELLS
Stem Cells Foreword

⬇ What are Stem Cells?

⬇ What are the major types of Stem Cells?
⬇ Why are Stem Cells so important?
⬇ The Controversy over Stem Cells

What are Stem Cells?

Stem Cells are undifferentiated biological cells :

✓ They can divide and make identical copies of themselves over and over again.

✓ They remain unspecialized (with no specific function)

✓ They can become specialized (differentiated) with the potential to produce

over 200 different types of cells in the body
Stem Cells Types of Stem Cells

Stem Cells: Types

The Major Types of Stem Cells

⇪
A stem cell story (15’)

A. Embryonic Stem Cells ⇪ embrionic stem cells video

They are harvested from:
✓ Embryos left over from In-Vitro Fertilization in the laboratory.
✓ Aborted fetuses

B. Adult Somatic Stem Cells

⇪

adult stem cells video

They are found in pockets:
✓ in the bone marrow, umbilical cord, brain
Stem Cells Types of Stem Cells
Stem Cells Stem Cells in Medicine

Stem Cells in Medicine

What human diseases are currently

being treated with stem cells?

• Parkinson’s Disease
• Leukemia (Bone Marrow Transplants)
• Skin Grafts resulting from severe burns

Stem Cell Therapy has the potential to:

• Regenerate tissues/organs
• Cure diseases like diabetes, multiple
sclerosis, etc.
⇪

Stem Cells and Diabetes

Stem Cells Stem Cells in Medicine

Stem Cells in Medicine

Stem Cells Stem Cells in Medicine

Stem Cells in Medicine

Why the Controversy Over Stem cells?

Because:

• Embryonic Stem cells are derived from extra embryos that would otherwise be
discarded following IVF.

• Extracting stem cells destroys the developing embryo.

CRISPR-Cas9
Stem Cells Stem Cells in Medicine

What is CRISPR-Cas9?

CRISPR-cas9 is a gene editing technique

used to cut and modify DNA strands.

The process was designed by imitating

an ancient bacterial strategy to get rid
of viral infections and it works by cutting
DNA sequences very accurately.

Once the DNA sequence has been cut,

researchers can repair it or modify it with
other methods.

This groundbreaking technique has

accelerated research on the treatment
of genetic diseases as well as genetically
modified organisms (MGOs) because it’s
cheap and simple to perform.
Stem Cells Stem Cells in Medicine

How does it work?

Stem Cells Stem Cells in Medicine

Why the controversy?

Because:

• Its low price and easy protocol make it accessible to many lab researchers
and individuals with a basic knowledge of biology.
• Its high accuracy at targeting any DNA sequence means that any trait that
took millions of years of evolution to get might vanish from a population.
• If a gene edit is made on germ-line cells, the coming generations will inherit
that modified sequence.
• Is it legitimate to modify someone’s genes?
BIOETHICS
Bioethics The ethical implications of scientific progress

BIOETHICS

– Questions for Consideration –

• Is an embryo a person?

• Is it morally acceptable to use embryos for research?

• When do we become “human beings”?

• Is it ok to clone a human being?

• Would you manipulate your own genetic code in order to

improve your body’s capabilities?