Chapter 3

Phoneme vs Allophone
Definition:
 Phoneme: The mental representation of a sound that can distinguish
words.
 Allophone: A variant pronunciation of a phoneme that does not change
meaning.
Examples:
 Phoneme Contrast (Minimal Pairs):
o /t/ vs. /d/: bat [bæt] vs. bad [bæd]

o /s/ vs. /z/: sin [sɪn] vs. zoo [zu]

 Allophones of /t/:
o [tʰ] (aspirated) in till [tʰɪl]

o [t] (unaspirated) in still [stɪl]

o [ɾ] (flap) in bitter [bɪɾɚ]

Distribution of Phonemes and Allophones
Phonemes
Definitions
 Distribution: The positions where a sound occurs in a word.
 Phonemes: Contrastive sounds that create different words when replaced.
 Minimal Pairs: Word pairs that differ in only one sound.
 Allophones: Variants of the same phoneme that do not change meaning.
 Complementary Distribution: Allophones do not appear in the same
phonetic environment.
Examples
 Phonemes: /t/ vs. /p/ in tick vs. pick.
 Minimal Pairs: bat vs. pat, sin vs. sing.
 Allophones: [tʰ] in till, [t] in still, [ɾ] in butter.
Table 3.1: Some Contrastive Sounds in English

Phonem Minimal Pairs

es

/t/ : /d/ bat [bæt] - bad

[bæd]

/n/ : /ŋ/ sin [sɪn] - sing

[sɪŋ]

/θ/ : /ð/ thigh [θaɪ] - thy

[ðaɪ]

/s/ : /z/ sue [su] - zoo [zu]

/æ/ : /ʊ/ pat [pæt] - put

[pʊt]

/ɪ/ : /i/ bin [bɪn] - been

[biːn]

Allophones
Definition
Allophones are variants of a phoneme that do not change word meaning. They are
non-contrastive and occur in different phonetic environments.
Complementary Distribution
Allophones appear in mutually exclusive environments, meaning one occurs in a
specific phonetic context while another appears elsewhere. Their occurrence is
predictable.
 Example: [tʰ] appears at the beginning of words like till and trap, while [t]
occurs after /s/ in words like still and strong.
Free Variation
Some allophones can occur in the same phonetic environment without altering word
meaning. Speakers may choose different pronunciations freely.
 Example: In word-final positions, [t] and [t̚] may be used interchangeably in
suit, let, and meet.
Distribution in English
Allophones follow systematic patterns in their occurrence.
 Example: [ɾ] appears between a stressed and an unstressed vowel, as in
bitter and water.
Predictability of Allophones
Since allophones follow systematic patterns, their occurrence can be anticipated
based on phonetic context.
 Example: If a word starts with /t/, it is pronounced with [tʰ], but after /s/, it
takes [t].
Minimal Pairs vs. Allophones
Unlike phonemes, which create minimal pairs by changing meaning, allophones only
result in phonetic variation.
 Example: Replacing /t/ with /d/ in till vs. dill changes the word’s meaning, but
using [t] or [t̚] in suit does not.

 Table: Distribution of English /t/ Allophones

Phonem Allophones Distribution Examples

e
/t/ [tʰ] Word-initial position till, trap, tea
/t/ [t] After /s/ and in word-final position still, strong, suit, let
/t/ [t̚] Word-final position suit, let, meet
/t/ [ɾ] Between a stressed and an unstressed vowel bitter, little, water
[tʰ], [t], [t̚], and [ɾ] occur in complementary distribution, meaning they appear in
specific environments.
[t] and [t̚] are also in free variation, as both can occur in word-final positions.
Phonological Rules and Allophonic Variation
Table: Distribution Properties of Phonemes and Allophones

Phoneme Allophone (Non-contrastive Sound)

(Contrastive Sound)

Can change a word’s Do not change a word’s meaning.

meaning when
replaced.

Appear in minimal Appear in different phonetic contexts (complementary

pairs. distribution) or in the same context without altering
meaning (free variation).

Rules for Consonants

1. Voiceless stops /p, t, k/ are aspirated at the beginning of a stressed syllable.
2. Alveolar stops /t, d/ become retroflex before /r/.
3. A /t/ sound is flapped between two vowels.
4. A velar /l/ appears in certain contexts.
5. The lateral liquid /l/ is velarized at the end of words or before consonants.
6. Retroflex liquid /r/ is rounded before back vowels.
7. Glottal fricative /h/ can be deleted between vowels after an unstressed
syllable.
Rules for Vowels
9. Vowels are nasalized before nasal consonants.
10.Stressed vowels lengthen before voiced consonants.
11.Unstressed vowels may be voiceless between voiceless consonants.
12.Stressed mid-tense vowels /e, o/ are followed by glides matching their
backness and roundness.
Phonological Rules
 Phonemes represent mental storage of sounds, while allophones are their
actual pronunciation.
 Phonological rules dictate how phonemes appear in different phonetic
environments.
 Phonemic Representation: Shows what speakers mentally perceive.
 Phonetic Representation: Shows the actual spoken realization.
Natural Class
  A set of sounds that share common properties, excluding all others.
 Example: English nasal consonants /m, n, ŋ/ form a natural class due to
shared nasality.
 Rounded vowels /ɔ, o, u/ also form a natural class.
Assimilation
Assimilation is a process where a sound becomes more similar to a neighboring
sound in one or more phonetic properties.
Example: Vowel Nasalization Rule
 In English, vowels become nasalized before nasal consonants (e.g., "run" →
[ɹʌ̃n]).

Dissimilation
Dissimilation is a process where a sound becomes less similar to a neighboring
sound, making pronunciation easier.
Example: Fricative Dissimilation Rule
 In words with consecutive fricatives, /θ/ may change to [t] (e.g., "fifth" →
[fɪft]).

Insertion (Epenthesis)
Insertion is a process where a sound is added to a word's phonetic representation.
Example:
  Vowel Insertion: A vowel is added for easier pronunciation (e.g., "dented" →
[dɛntəd]).

 Voiceless Stop Insertion: A stop consonant is inserted between a nasal and

a voiceless fricative (e.g., "strength" → [stɹɛŋkθ]).

Deletion – A phonological process where a sound (vowel/consonant) is removed in

speech for easier articulation.
 [ə] Deletion: Schwa ([ə]) is dropped in unstressed syllables (memory →
memri).

 [g] Deletion: [g] disappears before a final nasal (sign → saɪn but signal →
sɪgnəl).
Metathesis – The rearrangement of sounds within a word, often for ease of
pronunciation.
 Example: spaghetti → pasghetti, prescribe → perscribe.

Strengthening (Fortition) – A process where a sound becomes stronger.

 Example: Voiceless stops in stressed syllables become aspirated (pull →
pʰʊl).

Weakening (Lenition) – A process where a sound becomes weaker.

 Example: t or d becomes a flap [ɾ] in casual speech (butter → buɾer).
Syllables – The fundamental unit of phonology, consisting of one or more
phonemes.
 Structure: Nucleus (vowel) + optional onset (before vowel) + optional coda
(after vowel).
 Types:
 Minimum syllable: about → ə.baʊt (vowel only).
 Onset + nucleus: easy → i.zi.
 Nucleus + coda: at → æt.
 Onset + nucleus + coda: barley → bar.li.
 Consonant Clusters: Multiple consonants in a syllable (play, lists).

Phonotactic Constraints on Syllable are language-specific rules that govern how

sounds can be arranged in syllables, including restrictions on the onset, nucleus,
and coda positions.

 Example:
 English:
 The consonant cluster "ngl-" is not allowed at the beginning of a word.
 Words like "bnick" or "zdrip" are not possible in English.

QUESTION
2/Minimal Pairs for the Given Phonemes Find a set of minimal pairs for each pair of
phonemes: a. /k/ and /g/ → coat - goat b. /l/ and /r/ → light - right c. /m/ and /n/ →
mat - nat d. /p/ and /b/ → pat - bat e. /f/ and /v/ → fan - van 3. Phonological Rule in
Question
3/The phonological rule that relates to the phonemic and phonetic forms: The rule
observed in the data suggests schwa deletion in unstressed syllables. This process
occurs in fast or casual speech, where the unstressed vowel (schwa /ə/) is omitted
to make pronunciation smoother. For example: • /næʃənəlaɪz/ → [næʃnəlaɪz]
(nationalize) • /mædʒənətɪv/ → [mæʒnətɪv] (imaginative) 5. Phonological Rule in
Question
5/The phonological process observed here is palatalization in casual speech. • When
/t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/ are followed by a /j/ sound (as in "you"), they merge into
palatalized sounds**: o /t/ → /ʧ/ (get you → [gɛʧ yu]) o /d/ → /ʤ/ (did you → [dɪʤ yu])
o /s/ → /ʃ/ (miss you → [mɪʃ yu]) o /z/ → /ʒ/ (lose you → [luʒ yu]) This transformation
is a form of coarticulation, where the sounds blend together to make speech faster
and smoother.