Criteria for Selecting Instruments for a Particular Measurement

The first point in selecting the most suitable instrument to use for a particular measurement is the
specification of the instrument characteristics required especially parameters like the desired
measurement accuracy, resolution, sensitivity and dynamic performance. It is also important to
know the environmental conditions that the instrument will be subjected to.

Secondly, the extent to which the measured system will be disturbed during the measuring
process is another important factor in instrument choice. For instance, significant pressure loss
can be caused to the measured system in some techniques of flow measurement.

Thirdly, published literature is of considerable help in the choice of a suitable instrument for a
particular measurement situation. Many books are available that give valuable assistance in the
necessary evaluation by providing lists and data about all the instruments available for measuring
a range of physical quantities. It is essential for a good instrument engineer to keep abreast of the
latest developments by reading the appropriate technical journals regularly

Fourthly, purchase cost is very strongly correlated with the performance of instrument, as
measured by its static characteristics. Instrument selection process therefore proceeds by
specifying the minimum characteristics required by a measurement situation and then searching
manufacturer catalogues to find an instrument whose characteristics match those required

Fifthly, other important factors in the assessment exercise are instrument durability, maintenance
requirements and consistency of performance. Instrument choice is a compromise between
performance characteristics, ruggedness and durability, maintenance requirements and purchase
cost.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT METHODS

Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most industrial process control
systems, different types of pressure sensing and pressure measurement systems are available.
These pressure measurement instruments can be divided into pressure measuring devices and
vacuum measuring devices. U-tube manometers are being replaced with smaller and more
rugged devices, such as the silicon diaphragm. Vacuum measuring devices require special
techniques for the measurement of very low pressures. However, before considering these in
detail, it is important to explain some terms used in pressure measurement.
Terms Used In Pressure Measurement
Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area that a liquid or gas exerts on its surroundings, such as the force
or pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the earth, and the force that liquids exert on the
bottom and walls of a container.
Pressure (Pascal, Pa or N/m2) = FORMULAR
Hydrostatic Pressure
The pressure at a specific depth in a liquid is termed hydrostatic pressure. The pressure
increases as the depth in a liquid increases. This increase is due to the weight of the fluid above
the measurement point the pressure p is given by:

FORMULAR

The pressure at a given depth in a liquid is independent of the shape of the container or the
volume of liquid contained. This is known as the hydrostatic paradox.
Head
Head is sometimes used as a measure of pressure. It is the pressure in terms of a column of a
particular fluid for example 1m of water.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (SG) of a liquid or solid is defined as the density of a material divided by the
density of water. Specific gravity can also be defined as the specific weight of the material
divided by the specific weight of water at a specified temperature; specific gravity is a
dimensionless parameter.
Total Vacuum
Total vacuum is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as would be experienced in outer space, it is
very difficult to achieve in practice. Vacuum pumps can only approach a true vacuum.
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s surface, due to the weight of the gases in the
earth’s atmosphere. The pressure decreases above sea level, for example, at an elevation of
5000ft, it has dropped to approximately 12.2psi (84.122KPa).
Absolute Pressure
This is the difference between the pressure of the fluid and the absolute zero pressure or the
pressure measured with respect to a vacuum, and is expressed n psia or KPa
Note the use of letters ‘a’ and ‘g’ when referencing the pressure to absolute and gauge.
Gauge Pressure
This describes the difference between the pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure. Absolute
and gauge pressures are therefore related by the expression:

FORMULAR

Thus, gauge pressure varies as the atmospheric pressure changes and is therefore not a fixed
quantity. It is normally expressed in psig or KPa (g).
Vacuum
Vacuum is a pressure between total vacuum and normal atmospheric pressure. Pressures less
than atmospheric pressure are often referred to as “negative gauge”, and indicated by an amount
below atmospheric pressure. For example –5psig corresponds to 9.7psia.

Differential Pressure
This term is used to describe the difference between two absolute pressure values, such as the
pressures at two different points within the same fluid (often between the two sides of a flow
restrictor in a system measuring volume flow rate). It is referred to as the “delta p,” or ΔP.
In most applications, the typical values of pressure measured ranges from 1.013bar (the mean
atmospheric pressure) up to 7000 bar. This is considered to be the ‘normal’ pressure range, and a
large number of pressure sensors are available that can measure pressures in this range.
Measurement requirements outside this range are much less common. While some of the
pressure sensors developed for the ‘normal’ range can also measure pressures that are either
lower or higher than this, it is preferable to use special instruments that have been specially
designed to satisfy such low-and high-pressure measurement requirements.
Pressure Conversions
Differential Pressure
This term is used to describe the difference between two absolute pressure values, such as the
pressures at two different points within the same fluid (often between the two sides of a flow
restrictor in a system measuring volume flow rate). It is referred to as the “delta p,” or ΔP.
In most applications, the typical values of pressure measured ranges from 1.013bar (the mean
atmospheric pressure) up to 7000 bar. This is considered to be the ‘normal’ pressure range, and a
large number of pressure sensors are available that can measure pressures in this range.
Measurement requirements outside this range are much less common. While some of the
pressure sensors developed for the ‘normal’ range can also measure pressures that are either
lower or higher than this, it is preferable to use special instruments that have been specially
designed to satisfy such low-and high-pressure measurement requirements.
Pressure Conversions
Note:
1. Atmospheric pressure is measured in pounds per square inch (Psi) in the English system and
pounds per square foot (Psf).
2. Atmospheric pressure is measured in pascals (Pa or N/m2), in the SI system.
3. 1 torr = 1mm mercury, in the SI or metric sytem.
4. 1 bar (1.013 atm) = 100 KPa, in SI or metric system.

Manometers
Manometers are good examples of pressure measuring instruments, although they are not as
common as they previously were, because of the development of recent, smaller, more rugged,
and easier to use pressure sensors. Manometers are passive instruments that give a visual
indication of pressure values. Examples are;
The U-tube manometer, shown in Figure 1 below, is the most common form of manometer.
Applied pressure causes displacement of liquid inside the U-shaped glass tube, and the output
pressure reading P is made by observing the difference in h between the level of liquid in the two
halves of the tube A and B, according to the equation

FORMULAR
Where, ρ is the specific gravity or relative density of the fluid.
If an unknown pressure is applied to side A, and side B is open to the atmosphere, the output
reading is gauge pressure. Alternatively, if side B of the tube is sealed and evacuated, the output
reading is absolute pressure. The U-tube manometer also measures the differential pressure (P1 –
P2), according to the expression, if two unknown pressures P1 and P2 are applied respectively to
sides A and B of the tube.
FORMULAR

When higher pressure is applied to one side of the U-tube, as shown below (a), the liquid rises
higher in the lower pressure side, so that the difference in height of the two columns of liquid
compensates for the difference in pressure. The pressure difference is given by:

FORMULAR

Where h = difference in height of the liquid in the columns and = specific weight of the liquid in
the manometer. Output readings from U-tube manometers are subject to error, principally
because it is very difficult to judge exactly where the meniscus levels of the liquid are in the two
halves of the tube. In absolute pressure measurement, an addition error occurs because it is
impossible to totally evacuate the closed end of the tube. U-tube manometers are typically used
to measure gauge and differential pressures up to about 2bar. The type of liquid used in the
instrument depends on the pressure and characteristics of the fluid being measured. Water is a
cheap and convenient choice, but it evaporates easily and is difficult to see. Nevertheless, it is
used extensively, with the major obstacles to its use being overcome by using coloured water and
by regularly topping up the tube to counteract evaporation. Water is definitely not used when
measuring the pressure of fluids that react with or dissolve in water. Water is also unsuitable
when high-pressure measurements are required. In such circumstances, liquids aniline carbon
tetrachloride, bromoform, mercury or transformer oil are used instead.
The well-type or cistern manometer, shown 2 below, is similar to a U-tube manometer but one
half of the tube is made very large so that it forms a well. The change in the level of the well as
the measured pressure varies is negligible. Therefore, the liquid level in only one tube has to be
measured, which makes the instrument much easier to use than the U-tube manometer. If an
unknown pressure P1 is applied to port A, and port B is open to the atmosphere, the gauge
pressure is given by It might appear that the instrument would give a better measurement
accuracy than the U-tube manometer because the need to subtract two liquid level measurements
in order to arrive at the pressure value is avoided. However, this benefit is swamped by errors
that arise due to the typical cross-sectional area variations in the glass used to make the tube.
Such variations do not affect the accuracy of the U-tube manometer to the same extent. .

FORMULAR

The inclined manometer or draft gauge, shown in 3 below, is a variation on the well-type
manometer in which one leg of the tube is inclined to increase measurement sensitivity.
However, similar comments to those above apply to accuracy.

Bourdon Tube Gauge

The Bourdon tube dates from the 1840s. It is reliable, inexpensive, and one of the most common
general purpose pressure gauges. Bourdon tubes are hollow, flattened, or oval cross-sectional
beryllium, copper, or steel tubes, as shown in (a). Bourdon tubes can withstand overloads of up
to 40% of their maximum rated load without damage, but, if overloaded, may require
recalibration. Bourdon tube is used for measuring both positive and negative pressures. The
bourdon tube is also an elastic element type of pressure transducer. It is relatively cheap and is
commonly used for measuring the gauge pressure of both gaseous and liquid fluids. It consists of
a specially shaped piece of oval section, flexible, metal tube that is fixed at one end and frees to
move at the other end. When pressure is applied at the open, fixed end of the tube, the oval cross-
section becomes more circular. In consequence, there is a displacement of the free end of the
tube. This displacement is measured by some form of displacement transducer, which is
commonly a potentiometer or linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). Capacitive and
optical sensors are also sometimes used to measure the displacement.
The three common types of Bourdon tube are shown below. The maximum possible deflection
of the free end of the tube is proportional to the angle suspended by the arc through which the
tube is bent. For a C-type tube, the maximum value for this arc is somewhat less than 360 0C.
Where greater measurement sensitivity and resolution are required, spiral and helical tubes are
used. These both give a much greater deflection at the free end for a given applied pressure.
However, this increased measurement performance is only gained at the expense of a
substantial increase in manufacturing difficulty and cost compared with C-type tubes, and is
also associated with a large decrease in the maximum pressure that can be measured. Spiral
and helical types are sometimes provided with a rotating pointer that moves against a scale to
give a visual indication of the measured pressure. C-type tubes are available for measuring
pressures up to 6000 bar.

A typical C-type tube of 25mm radius has a maximum displacement travel of 4mm, giving a
moderate level of measurement resolution. Measurement inaccuracy (error) is typically quoted at
of full scale deflection. Similar accuracy is available from helical and spiral types, but while the
measurement resolution is higher, the maximum pressure measurable is only 700bars.
The existence of one potentially major source of error in Bourdon tube pressure measurement
has been widely documented, and few manufacturers of Bourdon tubes make any attempt to
warn users of their products appropriately. The problem is concerned with the relationship
between the fluid being measured and the fluid used for calibration. The pointer of Bourdon
tubes is normally set at zero during manufacture, using air as the calibration medium. However,
if a different fluid, especially a liquid, is subsequently used with a Bourdon tube, the fluid in the
tube will cause a non-zero deflection according to its weight compared with air, resulting in a
reading error of up to 6%. This can be avoided by calibrating the Bourdon tube with the fluid to
be measured instead of with air, assuming of course that the user is aware of the problem.
Alternatively, correction can be made according to the calculated weight of the fluid in the tube.
Unfortunately, difficulties arise with both of these solutions if air is trapped in the tube, since this
will prevent the tube being filled completely by the fluid. Then, the amount of fluid actually in
the tube, and its weight will be known.
In conclusion, therefore, Bourdon tubes only have guaranteed accuracy limits when measuring
gaseous pressures. Their use for accurate measurement of liquid pressures poses great
difficulty unless the gauge can be totally filled with liquid during both calibration and
measurement, a condition that is very difficult to fulfill practically.
Diaphragms
Diaphragms consist of a thin layer or film of a material supported on a rigid frame, as shown
below. Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for gauge sensing, with the other inlet port
being left open to the atmosphere. Pressures can be applied to both sides of the film for
differential sensing, and absolute pressure sensing can be achieved by having a partial vacuum
on one side of the diaphragm. A wide range of materials can be used for the sensing film, from
rubber to plastic for low pressures, ceramics and silicon for medium pressures metal alloy and
stainless steel for high pressures. Plastic diaphragms are cheapest, but metal diaphragms give
better accuracy. Stainless steel is normally used in high temperature or corrosive environments.
Ceramic diaphragms are resistant even to strong acids and alkalis, and used when the operating
environment is particularly harsh.
When a pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the film distorts or becomes slightly spherical,
and can be sensed using a strain gauge, piezoelectric, or changes in capacitance techniques.
Older techniques included magnetic and carbon pile devices. In the device shown, the position
of the diaphragm is sensed using capacitive techniques, and the measurement can be made by
using an ac bridge or by using pulse-switching techniques. These techniques are very accurate,
and excellent linear correlation between pressure and output signal amplitude can be obtained.

Silicon diaphragms are now in common use. Since silicon is a semiconductor, a piezoresistive
strain gauge and amplifier electronics can be integrated into the top surface of the silicon
structure, as shown in (b). These devices have built-in temperature compensation for the strain
gauges and amplifiers, and have high sensitivity, giving high output sensitivity, giving a high
output voltage (5V FSD). They are very small, accurate (< 2% full-scale deflection, FSD),
reliable, have a good temperature operating range (-50 to 1200C), are low cost, can withstand
high overloads, have good longevity, and are unaffected by many chemicals. Commercially
made devices are available for gauge, differential, and absolute pressure sensing up to 200Psi
(1.5MPa).
This range can be extended by the use of stainless steel diaphragms to 10,000Psi (70MPa)
(c) Schematic representation of diaphragm pressure sensor.
The cross section shown in (b) is a differential silicon chip (sensor die) micro-miniature pressure
sensor. The dimensions of the sensing elements are very small, and the die is packaged into a
plastic case (0.2 in thick × 0.6 in diameter, approximately).
The sensor is used in a wide variety of industrial applications, widely used in automotive
pressure sensing applications (e.g. manifold air pressure, barometric air pressure, oil,
transmission fluid, break fluid, power steering, tyre pressure, and many other applications such
as blood pressure monitors.
Bellows
The bellows, schematically illustrated in (a), is elastic element type of pressure sensor that
operates on very similar principles to the diaphragm pressure sensor. Bellows are similar to
capsules, except that instead of being joined directly together, the diaphragms are separated by a
corrugated tube or a tube with convolutions, as shown in (b). When pressure is applied to the
bellows, it elongates by stretching the convolutions, rather than the diaphragms. The materials
used for the bellows type of pressure sensor are similar to those used for the capsule, giving a
pressure range for the bellows of up to 800Psi (5MPa). Bellows devices can be used for absolute,
gauge, and differential pressure measurements.
Differential measurements can be made by mechanically connecting two bellows to be opposing
each other when pressure is applied to them, as shown in (b). When pressures P1 and P2 are
applied to the bellows, a differential scale reading is obtained. P2 could be atmospheric pressure
for gauge measurements. The bellow is the most sensitive of the mechanical devices for low
pressure measurements (i.e. 0.5 to 210KPa).
Bellows have a typical measurement uncertainty of only, but they have a relatively high
manufacturing cost and are prone to failure. %5.0

Pressure Recorders

A pressure recorder is a device that records the output of pressure measurement devices. Many
process manufacturers are required by law to provide a process history to regulatory agencies,
and manufacturers use recorders to help meet these regulatory requirements. In addition,
manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for trend analyses. By recording the readings of
critical measurement points and comparing those readings over time with the results of the
process, the process can be improved. Different pressure recorders display the data they collect
differently. Some pressure recorders list a set of pressure readings and the times the pressure
readings were taken; others create a chart or graph of the readings. Pressure recorders that create
charts or graphs are called chart recorders. For example mechanical chart recorders which are
either of the galvanometric type or potentiometer type. Both of these works on the same principle
of driving chart paper at a constant speed past a pen whose deflection is a function of the
magnitude of the measured signal. This produces a time history of the measured signal.

Application Considerations of the Pressure Measuring Devices

When installing pressure sensors, care should be taken to select the correct pressure sensor for
the application. This section gives a comparison of the characteristics of the various types of
pressure sensors, installation considerations, and calibration.

Selection

Pressure sensing devices are chosen for pressure range, overload requirements, accuracy,
temperature operating range, line-of-sight reading, electrical signaling, and response time. In
some applications there are other special requirements parameters such as hysteresis and stability
should be obtained from the manufacturer’s specifications. For most industrial applications that
involve positive pressures, the Bourdon tube is a good choice for direct visual readings and the
silicon pressure sensor for the generation of electrical signals. Both types of devices have
commercially available sensors to measure from 5 Psi FSD, up to 10,000 Psi (70MPa) FSD

COMPARISON OF BOURDON TUBE SENSOR AND SILICON SENSOR

Lists the operating range for several types of pressure sensors. The range shown is the full range,
and may involve several devices made of different types of materials. The accuracy may be
misleading, since it depends on the range of the device. The values given are typical, and may be
exceeded with new materials and advances in technology. Furthermore, manometers are
commonly used when just a visual indication of pressure level is required, and when very high
measurement accuracy is required, the resonant-wire device is a popular choice.
A number of special devices have been developed for measurement of pressures in the vacuum
range below atmospheric pressure (< 1.013bar). These special devices include the thermocouple
gauge, the pirani gauge, the thermistor gauge, the Mclead gauge and the ionization gauge.
At high pressures (> 7000bar) the only devices in that is commonly used are the manganin-wire
sensor and similar devices based on alternative alloys to manganin.
Installation
The following should be taken into considerations when installing pressure sensing devices.
1. The distance between the sensor and the source should be kept to a minimum.
2. Sensors should be connected via valves for ease of replacement.
3. Over range protection devices should be included at the sensor.
4. To eliminate errors due to trapped gas in sensing liquid pressures, the sensor should be located
below the source.
5. To eliminate errors due to trapped liquid in sensing gas pressures, the sensor should be located
above the source.
6. When measuring pressures in corrosive fluids and gases, an inert medium is necessary
between the sensor and source, or the sensor must be corrosive-resistant.
7. The weight of liquid in the connecting line of a liquid pressure sensing device located above or
below the source will cause errors at zero, and a correction must be made by the zero adjustment,
or otherwise compensated for in measurement systems.
8. Resistance and capacitance can be added to electronic circuits to reduce pressure fluctuations
and unstable readings. Some of these pressure recording systems include pressure recorders,
indicators drain regulators drain regulators and air drying chambers.
Calibration
Pressure sensing devices are calibrated at the factory. In cases where a sensor is suspect and
needs to be recalibration, the sensor can be returned to the factory for recalibration, or it can be
compared to a known reference. Low-pressure devices can be calibrated against a liquid
manometer. High-pressure devices can be calibrated with a deadweight tester, using weights on a
piston to accurately reproduce high pressures. Accurately calibrated standards can be obtained
from the National Institute of Standards and Technology, which also can perform recalibration of
standards.
Deadweight gauges, because of their superior accuracy, are used in calibration procedures of
other pressure-measuring devices. Instruments used as a standard in calibration procedures are
usually chosen to be of greater inherent accuracy than the process instruments that are used to
calibrate. Because such instruments are only used for calibration purposes, greater accuracy can
often be achieved by specifying a type of instrument that would be unsuitable for normal process
measurement.
Differential Pressures Measuring Devices
For differential pressure measurement, diaphragm type sensors are the preferred option, with
double bellows sensors being used occasionally. Bourdon tubes and Manometers are also
sometimes used to give visual indication of differential pressure values (especially in liquid
flow-rate indicators).
These are passive instruments that have the advantages of not needing a power supply. The
principle and application of these pressure measuring devices have been given in previous
sections.