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 Linux for Absolute Beginners

5 Books in 1 The Ultimate Guide to

Advanced Linux Programming, Kernel
Mastery, Robust Security Measures,
System Automation, and In-Depth
Hands-on Exercises for Real-World
Applications

Denver Geiger
© Copyright 2023 by Denver Geiger - All rights reserved. The
following book is provided below with the aim of delivering
information that is as precise and dependable as possible. However,
purchasing this book implies an acknowledgment that both the
publisher and the author are not experts in the discussed topics, and
any recommendations or suggestions contained herein are solely for
entertainment purposes. It is advised that professionals be consulted
as needed before acting on any endorsed actions. This statement is
considered fair and valid by both the American Bar Association and
the Committee of Publishers Association, and it holds legal binding
throughout the United States. Moreover, any transmission,
duplication, or reproduction of this work, including specific
information, will be deemed an illegal act, regardless of whether it is
done electronically or in print. This includes creating secondary or
tertiary copies of the work or recorded copies, which are only
allowed with the express written consent from the Publisher. All
additional rights are reserved.
 Table of Content
BOOK 1: "LINUX FOUNDATIONS: FROM ZERO TO HERO"
CHAPTER 1: The Linux Universe
Introduction to Linux
Why Choose Linux?
Linux vs. Other Operating Systems
Understanding Open Source
CHAPTER 2: Installing Linux
Choosing a Linux Distribution
Installation Requirements
Dual Boot vs. Virtual Machine
Installation Steps
CHAPTER 3: The Linux Desktop Environment
The Graphical User Interface
Popular Desktop Environments
Navigating the Linux File System
Managing Software Packages
CHAPTER4: Basic Linux Commands
Introduction to the Terminal
File Manipulation Commands
Text Processing Commands
System Monitoring Commands
CHAPTER 5: Linux Security Basics
User Accounts and Permissions
Firewalls in Linux
Software Security Practices
Backup and Recovery Procedures
BOOK 2: "UNLOCKING THE LINUX COMMAND LINE"
CHAPTER 1: Terminal Basics
Terminal Emulators
Shell Types
Basic Shell Commands
Terminal Shortcuts
CHAPTER 2: Text Manipulation
Text Editors
Searching Text with grep
Stream Editing with sed
Text Sorting and Uniqueness
CHAPTER 3: File Operations
Navigating the File System
File Permissions
 Linking Files
Compression and Archiving
CHAPTER 4: Process Management
Understanding Processes
Monitoring Processes.
Killing and Signaling Processes
The Vitality of Process Termination and Signaling
Scheduling Tasks
CHAPTER 5: Advanced Topics and Challenges
Basic Networking Concepts
Network Configuration
Network Monitoring
Secure Shell (SSH)
BOOK 3: "LINUX FOR THE ENTERPRISE: BUSINESS APPLICATIONS AND
SOLUTIONS"
CHAPTER 1: Linux in Business
Why Businesses Choose Linux
Enterprise-Level Distributions
Linux in Cloud Computing
Linux in DevOps
CHAPTER 2: Databases on Linux
SQL Databases
NoSQL Databases
Database Backup and Recovery
Database Performance Tuning
CHAPTER 3: Web Servers
Apache and Nginx
Content Management Systems
SSL/TLS Certificates
Load Balancing
CHAPTER 4: Virtualization
Linux Containers
Virtual Machines
Resource Management
Virtual Networks
CHAPTER 5: Automation and Scripting
Shell Scripting Basics
Python Scripting
Configuration Management Tools
CI/CD Pipelines
BOOK 4: "ADVANCED LINUX PROGRAMMING"
CHAPTER 1: Kernel and System Programming
 The Linux Kernel
System Calls
Device Drivers
Kernel Modules
CHAPTER 2: Advanced Shell Scripting
Conditional Statements
Loops and Iteration
Functions and Libraries
Debugging Scripts
CHAPTER 3: Security Measures
Linux Security Modules
Intrusion Detection Systems
Virtual Private Networks
Secure Boot and Encryption
CHAPTER 4: Performance Tuning
System Monitoring Tools
Kernel Tuning
Disk I/O Optimization
Network Optimization
CHAPTER 5: Linux Contributions and Community
Open Source Licensing
Contributing to Linux
Community Support
Professional Certification
BOOK 5: "HANDS-ON LINUX: PRACTICAL EXERCISES AND CHALLENGES"
CHAPTER 1: Command Line Mastery
Basic Terminal Exercises
File Manipulation Challenges
Text Processing Scenarios
Custom Scripting Tasks
CHAPTER 2: System Administration Drills
User Management Tasks
Software Package Challenges
Backup and Recovery Scenarios
Security Configuration Drills
CHAPTER 3: Networking Exercises
Network Configuration Tasks
Diagnostics and Monitoring Challenges
Secure Communication Exercises
Server Setup Scenarios
CHAPTER 4: Database and Web Server Practicals
SQL Query Challenges
 NoSQL Configuration Tasks
Web Server Configuration Drills
CMS Setup Scenarios
CHAPTER 5: Advanced Topics and Challenges
Kernel Compilation Exercises
Script Optimization Challenges
Virtualization Scenarios
Automation and CI/CD Drills
Book 1: "Linux Foundations: From
Zero to Hero"
 CHAPTER 1: The Linux Universe
Welcome to the world of Linux, a journey through an operating
system that has transformed the way we think about and interact
with technology. In this first chapter, "The Linux Universe," we
embark on an exploration that delves deep into the heart of Linux.
We start by introducing Linux, laying the foundation for
understanding its core principles, how it stands out from other
operating systems, and the ethos of the open-source movement that
powers it. This chapter is designed to provide a comprehensive
overview, setting the stage for the intricate and fascinating universe
of Linux. Whether you are a curious beginner or a seasoned
professional, these insights will illuminate the path towards
mastering this powerful and versatile system.

Introduction to Linux
In discussing the introduction to Linux, it's essential to delve into its
technical roots and the principles that have made it a cornerstone of
modern computing. Linux, at its core, is an operating system, akin to
Windows or macOS, but it distinguishes itself through its unique
development and operational model.

The Genesis and Evolution of Linux

Linux's journey began in 1991 with Linus Torvalds, a Finnish
computer science student. Torvalds, driven by a personal project and
dissatisfaction with existing operating systems, particularly MINIX (a
Unix-like system), embarked on developing a free operating system
kernel. This kernel is the central component of the Linux operating
system, managing system resources and facilitating communication
between hardware and software.
Torvalds' vision was not just to create an alternative system but to
foster a collaborative environment where anyone could contribute to
its development. This approach was revolutionary and contrasted
sharply with the proprietary models of software development
prevalent at the time.

Understanding the Linux Kernel

The Linux kernel, as the core of the operating system, is responsible
for managing the system's hardware, including CPU, memory, and
peripheral devices. It acts as a mediator, ensuring that software
applications can interact with the hardware efficiently and securely.
The kernel's responsibilities include process management, memory
management, device drivers, file system management, and
networking.
The flexibility of the kernel, allowing it to be modified and used in
various environments, from servers and desktops to embedded
systems, is a defining feature of Linux. This adaptability stems from
its modular design, allowing components to be added or removed
according to the specific needs of the system.

Linux's Open Source Nature

A pivotal aspect of Linux is its open-source nature. Unlike proprietary
operating systems, where the source code is closely guarded, Linux’s
source code is freely available for anyone to view, modify, and
distribute. This open-source model has been instrumental in Linux’s
development, allowing a community of developers and users to
continually enhance its features, security, and performance.
This collaborative development model means that Linux is not
controlled by any single entity but is instead a product of collective
input and effort. The implications of this are significant, both
technically and culturally. Technically, it leads to a robust, secure,
and highly customizable operating system. Culturally, it represents a
shift towards a more democratic and inclusive approach to software
development.

Linux Distributions: Varied Flavors of Linux

Linux’s versatility is further exemplified by its distributions. A Linux
distribution is a complete operating system built around the Linux
kernel, bundled with a package management system, and a
selection of applications. Each distribution caters to different user
preferences and needs. For example, Ubuntu focuses on user-
friendliness and out-of-the-box functionality, Fedora emphasizes
cutting-edge features, and Debian prides itself on stability and
performance.
The diversity of distributions means that Linux can be tailored to a
wide range of applications, from lightweight systems for older
hardware to specialized distributions for scientific computing, data
centers, and cloud environments.

Linux in the Modern Computing Landscape

Today, Linux is ubiquitous in the computing landscape. Its presence
spans across personal computers, servers, mobile devices, and
embedded systems. The Linux operating system powers the majority
of the internet's servers, including major companies like Google and
Facebook, and is the foundation of the Android mobile operating
system.
In conclusion, the introduction to Linux is more than just an
overview of a software system. It is a story of innovation,
collaboration, and flexibility. Linux has not only provided a robust
technical foundation for various computing applications but has also
shaped the way software is developed and shared in the modern
world. As we delve deeper into Linux, we will explore its
functionalities, its impact on the computing world, and its potential
for future technologies.

Why Choose Linux?

Choosing Linux as an operating system is a decision that goes
beyond mere preference. It’s a strategic choice that reflects a deeper
understanding of what an operating system can and should offer in
the modern technological landscape. In this section, we delve into
the reasons why Linux stands out as a compelling choice for users
ranging from casual enthusiasts to hardcore programmers and large-
scale enterprises.

The Foundation of Flexibility and Control

One of Linux's primary attractions is its unparalleled flexibility. Unlike
other operating systems, where users must adapt to the way the
system is designed, Linux allows users to tailor the operating system
to their specific needs. This flexibility manifests in various forms,
from choosing a graphical user interface (GUI) to selecting the
specific services and processes that run on the system. For instance,
a user can opt for a lightweight window manager like Xfce for an old
laptop or choose KDE for a feature-rich desktop experience.
Open Source: A Model for Innovation
The open-source nature of Linux is not just about free access to the
software but also about the freedom to inspect, modify, and enhance
it. This aspect encourages innovation and continuous improvement,
driven by a global community of developers. In contrast to
proprietary operating systems, where the source code is often a
closely guarded secret, Linux’s source code is available for anyone to
study. This transparency is not just about learning; it's about
contributing to the betterment of the system.

Stability and Reliability: The Cornerstones of

Linux
Linux’s reputation for stability and reliability is well-earned. It is
common for Linux servers to run for years without needing a reboot.
This stability is a product of the rigorous testing and development
process of the Linux kernel and the contributions of a diverse
community. Moreover, Linux’s robust permission system and process
management contribute to its stable performance, ensuring that
faulty applications or services don’t disrupt the entire system.

Security: A Top Priority

Security is another realm where Linux excels. The operating system's
design, which separates user space from kernel space, inherently
enhances security. Linux distributions come with powerful built-in
tools like firewalls (e.g., iptables) and security-enhanced Linux
(SELinux) frameworks that provide an additional layer of system
security. The open-source model also plays a crucial role here: the
transparency of code means vulnerabilities can be quickly identified
and patched by the community, unlike proprietary systems where
security patches depend on the vendor.
Cost-Effectiveness: An Economical Choice
For individuals, startups, and even large enterprises, the cost is a
significant factor in choosing an operating system. Linux is generally
free to use, which contrasts sharply with the licensing fees
associated with some other operating systems. This cost-
effectiveness extends beyond just the acquisition cost to include
aspects like lower requirements for hardware, leading to a longer
lifespan for existing infrastructure, and freedom from vendor lock-in.

Customizability: Tailoring Linux to Your Needs

The ability to customize Linux extends beyond surface-level
aesthetics to core functionalities. Users have the freedom to choose
not only their desktop environments and applications but also which
kernel version to run. This degree of customization allows users to
create an operating system that aligns perfectly with their specific
needs, whether it’s a lightweight system for programming or a
robust server environment.

Performance: Optimized for Efficiency

Linux is renowned for its efficient use of system resources. This
efficiency makes it an ideal choice for everything from high-
performance computing to running servers and desktops. Linux’s
ability to run on a variety of hardware, from supercomputers to low-
power devices, is a testament to its optimized performance.

Community Support: The Strength of

Collaboration*
Lastly, the Linux community is a vibrant and invaluable resource.
Users benefit from a vast array of forums, online resources, and
community support, making Linux not just an operating system but a
learning experience. This community-driven support model is
particularly beneficial for troubleshooting, learning new skills, or
even contributing to the development of the software.
In conclusion, choosing Linux is a decision that offers numerous
benefits: flexibility, security, stability, cost-effectiveness,
customizability, optimized performance, and a strong community
support system. These attributes make Linux not only a viable
alternative to other operating systems but often a superior choice,
especially in environments where control, security, and reliability are
paramount.

Linux vs. Other Operating Systems

In the vast landscape of operating systems, Linux stands out for its
distinctive characteristics and capabilities. While other operating
systems like Windows and macOS have their unique advantages,
Linux offers a different set of benefits that cater to specific needs
and preferences. This section explores how Linux compares to these
operating systems in various critical aspects.

Core Philosophies and Development Models

Linux, at its heart, is grounded in the philosophy of open-source and
collaborative development. Unlike Windows and macOS, which are
proprietary products of Microsoft and Apple, respectively, Linux is the
result of contributions from a global community of developers. This
difference in philosophy extends to how the operating systems are
developed, updated, and maintained. While proprietary systems
often focus on broad user-friendly features and streamlined
experiences, Linux prioritizes flexibility, user control, and community-
driven innovation
System Architecture and Performance
The architecture of Linux is fundamentally different from Windows
and macOS. Linux’s kernel, the core part of the operating system, is
known for its efficiency and flexibility. This efficiency translates into
faster performance, especially in server environments or where
resource-intensive tasks are commonplace. Linux can be optimized
for a variety of hardware configurations, from high-end servers to
low-resource devices, making it a versatile choice for different
computing needs.

Security and Privacy Features

Security is a domain where Linux particularly excels. Its security
model, which includes features like SELinux and AppArmor, offers
robust protection against various types of vulnerabilities. Linux’s
permission system and the way it handles user privileges provide an
additional layer of security. On the other hand, Windows and macOS,
while continually improving their security features, have different
models that sometimes prioritize user convenience, which can lead
to compromises in security.

Customizability and User Control

Linux offers an unparalleled level of customizability compared to
Windows and macOS. From the kernel to the user interface,
everything in Linux can be customized. This allows users to strip
down the operating system to its bare essentials or build it up to
include a wide range of functionalities tailored to their specific
needs. In contrast, Windows and macOS offer limited customization
options, primarily confined to aesthetic changes and some system
preferences.
Software Management and Ecosystem
The approach to software management in Linux is also distinct.
Linux distributions typically come with package managers that allow
users to easily install, update, and manage software from central
repositories. This system contrasts with the more manual software
installation processes on Windows and the App Store model of
macOS. The open-source nature of Linux also means that a vast
array of software is available for free, whereas software on Windows
and macOS may often require licenses or purchases.

Hardware Compatibility and Driver

Management
While Linux has made significant strides in hardware compatibility,
Windows and macOS typically have the edge in terms of out-of-the-
box support for the latest hardware and peripherals. This is partly
due to the direct partnerships that Microsoft and Apple have with
hardware manufacturers. However, the Linux community has been
proactive in developing drivers and ensuring compatibility for a wide
range of hardware, although this sometimes requires additional
effort from the user.

User Base and Community Support

Linux has a strong, dedicated community that offers extensive
support through forums, online resources, and distributions’
documentation. This community-driven support is invaluable,
especially for technical issues or specialized use cases. Windows and
macOS, being more widely used in the consumer market, offer more
mainstream support channels, including direct support from
Microsoft and Apple.
Comparing Linux with other operating systems like Windows and
macOS reveals a landscape of contrasts, each with its strengths and
focus areas. Linux’s open-source nature, flexibility, and security
features make it a compelling choice for users who value control and
customization. Windows and macOS, with their user-friendly
interfaces and broad hardware support, cater to a more general
audience. Understanding these differences is crucial for users to
make an informed choice that aligns with their specific needs and
preferences in computing.

Understanding Open Source

Understanding open source is crucial in comprehending the essence
of Linux and its overarching influence on the world of technology.
Open source is not merely a software development model; it’s a
philosophy, a collaborative movement that has reshaped the way we
think about software creation, distribution, and usage.

The Genesis of Open Source

The concept of open source software (OSS) emerged as a response
to the proprietary software models of the 1980s and 1990s, where
software was exclusively controlled by corporations, with users
having no access to the source code. The open source movement
was fueled by the idea that software should be freely accessible,
modifiable, and distributable. This idea crystallized with the
formation of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) in 1985 by Richard
Stallman, and later, the Open Source Initiative (OSI) in 1998, which
sought to promote and standardize open source software.

Core Principles of Open Source

The open source model is built on key principles that define its
operation and philosophy. These include:
1. Free Redistribution: The software can be freely given away or
sold.
2. Source Code Access: The source code must be accessible and
modifiable.
3. Derived Works: Modification and derived works are allowed and
can be distributed under the same terms as the original software.
4. Integrity of the Author's Source Code: While modifications are
permissible, certain licenses may require that modifications be
distributed as patches to the original source code.
5. No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups: Open source
software must not discriminate against any person or group of
persons.
6. No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor: The software can
be used for any purpose, be it commercial, academic, or other.
7. Distribution of License: The rights attached to the software must
apply to all whom the software is redistributed without the need for
additional licenses.
8. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product: The license must not
be restricted to a specific product, allowing it to be included in a
broader software distribution.
9. License Must Not Restrict Other Software: The license must not
place restrictions on other software that is distributed along with the
licensed software.
10. License Must Be Technology-Neutral: No provision of the license
may be predicated on any individual technology or style of interface.

The Impact of Open Source on Software

Development
The open source model has revolutionarily impacted software
development. It has enabled a more collaborative, transparent, and
community-driven approach to creating software. This model
encourages innovation, as developers from around the world can
contribute to a project, improve the code, and share their
modifications with the community. This collaboration leads to more
robust, secure, and feature-rich software.
Linux: A Testament to Open Source Success
Linux stands as a prime example of the success of the open source
model. The Linux kernel, initiated by Linus Torvalds, was released
under the GNU General Public License (GPL), an open source license,
which allowed for widespread collaboration and development. This
led to the creation of a plethora of Linux distributions, each catering
to different needs, yet all sharing the core principles of open source.

Challenges and Misconceptions

Despite its advantages, the open source model faces challenges and
misconceptions. One common misconception is that open source
software is less secure because its code is publicly accessible.
However, the opposite is often true; the transparency of open source
software allows for more eyes to scrutinize and improve the code,
leading to enhanced security.
Another challenge is the sustainability of open source projects. Since
most open source software is available for free, ensuring adequate
resources and funding for ongoing development can be a challenge.
This has led to various models of open source sustainability,
including donations, sponsorships, and dual licensing, where a
company offers the software under both an open source and a
commercial license.
In conclusion, understanding open source is essential to grasping
the full scope of Linux and its role in the broader tech ecosystem.
Open source is more than a software development method; it's a
paradigm that champions collaboration, innovation, and freedom in
the software world. As Linux continues to evolve and grow, it carries
with it the ethos of open source, a testament to what collaborative
effort can achieve in the realm of technology.
As we conclude this introductory chapter, it's evident that Linux is
more than just an operating system; it's a symbol of innovation and
collaboration in the digital age. We've journeyed through the origins
and development of Linux, seen how it contrasts with other popular
operating systems, and gained an understanding of the open-source
philosophy that underpins it. This knowledge sets a solid foundation
for the subsequent chapters, where we will dive into more technical
aspects and practical applications of Linux. By now, you should have
a clear picture of what makes Linux unique and why it continues to
be a crucial player in the world of computing. As you continue
through this book, keep the principles and insights from this chapter
in mind – they will be your guide in unraveling the full potential of
Linux.
 CHAPTER 2: Installing Linux
Welcome to Chapter 2 of "Linux Foundations: From Zero to Hero,"
where we embark on the practical journey of bringing Linux into
your computing world. This chapter is dedicated to installing Linux, a
critical step in harnessing the power and flexibility of this robust
operating system. We begin by guiding you through the selection of
a Linux distribution, tailored to your needs and preferences. Then,
we delve into the essential preparation steps, covering hardware
requirements and the nuances of setting up your system for Linux.
We also explore the pivotal decision between opting for a dual-boot
setup or a virtual machine, each with its unique advantages. Finally,
we walk you through the installation process step-by-step, ensuring
a smooth transition to your new Linux environment. This chapter is
your comprehensive guide to transforming theory into action,
turning your interest in Linux into a tangible and functional reality.

Choosing a Linux Distribution

Embarking on the Linux journey begins with a pivotal decision:
choosing a Linux distribution (distro). This choice is more than a
mere preference; it's about finding a distro that aligns with your
needs, skills, and objectives. The Linux ecosystem is rich with a
variety of distributions, each offering unique features, philosophies,
and user experiences. This section will guide you through the
labyrinth of choices to help you select the Linux distro that best suits
your journey into the Linux world.

Understanding Linux Distributions

A Linux distribution is essentially a version of Linux designed for a
specific set of users or tasks. It includes the Linux kernel, a
collection of software and applications, and often a package
manager, which simplifies the process of installing and managing
software. Distributions vary in terms of ease of use, stability, update
frequency, and support for different types of hardware.
Key Factors in Choosing a Distribution
When selecting a distribution, consider several crucial factors:
1. Purpose of Use: Are you using Linux for web development,
general computing, education, server management, or high-
performance computing? Each distribution has strengths in different
areas. For example, Ubuntu is renowned for its user-friendliness,
making it an excellent choice for beginners and general users, while
CentOS is a preferred choice for servers due to its stability and long-
term support.
2. Level of Experience: If you’re new to Linux, you might want a
distribution with an easy learning curve. Distributions like Ubuntu,
Linux Mint, and Fedora offer a straightforward experience for
newcomers. More experienced users might prefer distributions like
Debian or Arch Linux, which offer more control but require a deeper
understanding of Linux systems.
3. Hardware Compatibility: Some distributions are designed to work
with older hardware, breathing new life into aging systems. For
instance, Lubuntu and Puppy Linux are lightweight distributions that
can run on older hardware with limited resources.
4. Community and Support: The Linux community is a vital aspect of
the Linux experience. Larger distributions like Ubuntu have vast,
active communities that can provide invaluable support. Smaller
distributions might offer a more niche, but possibly less robust,
community support network.
5. Software Availability: Different distributions have varying degrees
of software availability. If you rely on specific applications, it’s
essential to check their availability and support in the distribution
you choose.
6. Security and Privacy: If security and privacy are your primary
concerns, distributions like Tails and Qubes OS are designed with
these priorities in mind, offering advanced security features.
7. Aesthetic and User Interface: Linux distributions offer a range of
desktop environments (DEs). DEs like GNOME, KDE Plasma, and
XFCE provide different user experiences and aesthetics. Some
distributions, like Fedora, offer spins or flavors that come with
different DEs.

Popular Linux Distributions

To illustrate the diversity within Linux distributions, let’s briefly look
at a few popular ones:
- Ubuntu: Known for its user-friendliness, Ubuntu is suitable for both
beginners and experienced users. It has a regular release cycle and
enjoys widespread software support.
- Fedora: Known for being cutting-edge, Fedora is ideal for those
who want the latest software technologies. It’s also the upstream
source of Red Hat Enterprise Linux, ensuring enterprise-grade
quality.
- Debian: Valued for its stability and robustness, Debian is a popular
choice for servers. It has a vast repository of software and is the
foundation for many other distributions, including Ubuntu.
- Arch Linux: Arch is for those who want to learn the ins and outs of
Linux. It follows a rolling release model and is known for its
simplicity and customization.
Choosing a Linux distribution is a deeply personal decision that
should be influenced by your needs, preferences, and objectives.
Whether you’re looking for simplicity, stability, cutting-edge features,
or something in between, there is a Linux distribution out there for
you. The beauty of Linux lies in its diversity, offering something for
everyone in its wide array of distributions. As you embark on this
journey, remember that the choice of distribution is not permanent –
the Linux world is flexible, and you can always switch distributions as
your needs and skills evolve.
Installation Requirements
Embarking on the journey of installing Linux, one must first navigate
the terrain of installation requirements. This phase is crucial, acting
as the bridge between the decision to use Linux and its actual
implementation. The requirements for installing Linux are not just a
checklist of hardware and software specifications; they represent a
foundational understanding of what your computer needs to run
Linux efficiently and effectively.

Hardware Requirements: A Closer Look

Linux is known for its versatility in running on a wide range of
hardware, from high-end servers to older desktops. However, certain
baseline specifications are recommended to ensure a smooth
experience.
1. Processor (CPU): The heart of your computer, the CPU, plays a
crucial role in the performance of Linux. While Linux can run on
older processors, a modern multi-core processor will provide a more
seamless experience, especially for distributions with more intensive
graphical environments.
2. Memory (RAM): RAM is where your computer stores data for quick
access. The required amount of RAM depends on the distribution
and the intended use of the system. For lightweight distributions like
Lubuntu or Xubuntu, as little as 1GB of RAM may suffice. However,
for more feature-rich distributions like Ubuntu or Fedora, 4GB of
RAM is a more realistic minimum, with 8GB or more being ideal for
optimal performance.
3. Storage (Hard Drive or SSD): The storage requirements for Linux
vary widely based on the distribution. A minimal installation might
take as little as 10GB of space, while a standard desktop installation
typically requires between 20GB and 30GB. For those planning to
use their system extensively, especially for applications like video
editing or software development, allocating more storage space will
be beneficial.
4. Graphics Card (GPU): Most modern GPUs will work well with
Linux, including those from NVIDIA and AMD. While Linux can run
on integrated graphics, a dedicated GPU is beneficial for graphics-
intensive tasks. It's also important to note that while Linux supports
a wide range of GPUs, driver support can vary, especially for newer,
cutting-edge graphics cards.
5. Network Connectivity: An internet connection is not strictly
required to install Linux, but it is highly recommended. A connection
during installation allows for immediate system updates and the
installation of additional software.
6. Peripherals: Basic peripherals like a keyboard, mouse, and
monitor are, of course, necessary. Linux supports a broad range of
these devices, but for specialized peripherals, checking compatibility
with Linux is advised.

Software Requirements: Preparing for

Installation
In addition to hardware, certain software preparations are
necessary:
1. Bootable Linux Media: This could be a live CD/DVD or a bootable
USB drive containing the Linux distribution of your choice. Tools like
Rufus or balenaEtcher can be used to create these bootable media
from Linux ISO files.
2. Backup Software: Before installing Linux, especially if you plan to
dual-boot with another operating system, it’s crucial to back up your
existing data. This can be done using cloud storage services or
external storage devices.
3. Partitioning Tool: If you’re planning to install Linux alongside
another operating system, you’ll need a partitioning tool to allocate
space on your hard drive. Many Linux installers come with built-in
partitioning tools, but being familiar with them beforehand is
beneficial.
4. Compatibility Check: It’s wise to check the compatibility of the
chosen Linux distribution with your hardware. Most distributions
provide a live environment that you can boot into without installing,
allowing you to test hardware compatibility, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
and graphics performance.
Preparing your system for Linux installation is a critical step that
shapes your experience with the operating system. While Linux’s
flexibility allows it to run on a variety of hardware setups, paying
attention to these requirements will ensure that your transition to
Linux is as smooth and trouble-free as possible. As you gear up for
installation, remember that this preparation phase is as much about
understanding your system’s capabilities as it is about meeting
technical specifications.

Dual Boot vs. Virtual Machine

In the odyssey of installing Linux, a pivotal decision awaits: should
you set up a dual boot system or use a virtual machine? This choice
is not merely technical; it's about aligning your computing
environment with your needs, workflow, and resources.
Understanding the intricacies of both options is crucial for a decision
that will significantly shape your Linux experience.

Dual Boot: A Tale of Two Systems

A dual boot setup allows you to install Linux alongside another
operating system (OS), such as Windows or macOS, on the same
machine. When you start your computer, you're greeted with a menu
to choose which OS to boot into. This configuration offers a fully
immersive Linux experience, utilizing the full power of your
hardware.
1. Performance: In a dual boot setup, Linux has direct access to your
computer's hardware resources. This means better performance,
especially for resource-intensive tasks like software development,
video editing, or gaming.
2. Hardware Compatibility: Dual booting allows Linux to interact
directly with your hardware, giving you a clearer picture of
compatibility issues. It’s an excellent way to test Linux with all your
hardware, including peripherals.
3. Storage Considerations: Dual booting requires partitioning your
hard drive, effectively dividing storage space between two operating
systems. This process can be intricate and may intimidate
newcomers.
4. Risk Factors: The process of setting up a dual boot can be riskier
than using a virtual machine. Incorrect partitioning can lead to data
loss. Therefore, backing up data is critical before proceeding with a
dual boot installation.
5. Use Cases: Dual booting is ideal for users who need to switch
between Linux and another OS while ensuring maximum
performance. It suits those who prefer a more native experience or
who are testing Linux as a primary operating system.

Virtual Machine: Linux in a Box

A virtual machine (VM) allows you to run Linux inside your current
operating system, like running a program. Tools like VirtualBox or
VMware create an emulated environment for Linux to run within.
1. Safety and Simplicity: Setting up Linux on a VM is less risky
compared to dual booting. It doesn’t require partitioning your hard
drive and thus poses no risk to your primary OS.
2. Performance Trade-offs: While a VM provides a safe and isolated
environment, it shares your computer’s resources with the host OS.
This shared resource allocation can lead to reduced performance,
especially in RAM and CPU usage.
3. Ease of Use: VMs are particularly user-friendly, making them
suitable for beginners or those who want to test Linux without
altering their existing system setup.
4. Snapshot and Testing Features: One significant advantage of VMs
is the ability to take snapshots of your Linux system. This feature is
invaluable for testing software, updates, or system changes without
risking your main system.
5. Use Cases: VMs are ideal for users who require Linux for specific
tasks, rather than for everyday use. They are perfect for developers,
testers, or learners who need an isolated environment to experiment
with Linux without affecting their primary operating system.
Choosing between dual booting and using a virtual machine is a
decision that hinges on your requirements, technical comfort level,
and intended use cases. Dual booting offers a full-fledged Linux
experience with better performance but requires careful partitioning
and carries certain risks. On the other hand, VMs offer a safe,
isolated, and slightly less performant way to experience Linux. Both
choices have their merits, and your selection should align with your
specific needs, be it for development, experimentation, or daily
productivity. As you progress in your Linux journey, this decision will
be a cornerstone in how you interact with this versatile and powerful
operating system.

Installation Steps
The process of installing Linux marks a pivotal moment in the
journey of any aspiring Linux user. It's a blend of technical procedure
and art, requiring precision and attention to detail. This section will
guide you through the comprehensive steps to install Linux, ensuring
a successful setup and a solid foundation for your Linux endeavors.
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When Tetzel concluded his discourse he immediately left the pulpit,
ran to the money box, and, in the sight of the people, dropped into
it a coin, being very careful to make it rattle so that it could be heard
by the excited people. This was the signal that “indulgence had
established its throne in the place with due solemnity.”
Confessionals, decorated with the pope’s arms, were arranged in
convenient places. On “each of these confessionals were posted in
large letters the names, the surnames and titles of the under
commissaries and of the confessors. Men, women and children
crowded around these confessionals, all with money in their hands.
Even those who lived on alms found money to buy indulgences!”

After having privately explained to each individual the greatness of

indulgence, the confessors addressed the following question to each
penitent: “How much money can you conscientiously spare to obtain
so complete a remission?” “The demand,” said the instructions of the
archbishop of Mentz to the commissaries, “should be made at this
moment, in order that the penitents might be better disposed to
contribute.”

To all who should aid in building the cathedral of Saint Peter in

Rome, the following graces were promised: (1) The full pardon for
every sin; (2) the right of choosing a confessor, who, whenever the
hour of death appeared at hand, should give absolution for all sin,
even from the greatest crimes reserved for the apostolic see; (3) a
participation in all the blessings, works and merits of the Catholic
Church, prayers, fasts, alms, and the pilgrimages; and (4)
redemption of the souls that are in purgatory. To obtain the first of
these graces it was said to be necessary to “have contrition of heart
and confession of mouth, or at least an intention of confessing. But
as for the three others they might be obtained without contrition,
without confession, simply by paying.” The intention was to make it
appear that whoever possessed money could, by using it in 72
the purchase of indulgences, introduce souls into heaven. The
indulgence mongers said:
 As for those who would deliver souls from purgatory and procure
the pardon of all their offenses, let them put money into the
chest; contrition of heart or confession of mouth is not necessary.
Let them only hasten to bring their money: for thus they will
perform a work most useful to the souls of the dead, and to the
building of the Church of Saint Peter.

The confession over, there was a rush to the trafficker, who

examined very closely the dress, manner, gait and appearance of the
applicant. The sum required was measured by his judgment of the
financial ability of the individual. If he made a mistake about the
price set, he was empowered to make the best bargain possible,
“and all was to be arranged according to the data of sound reason,
and the generosity of the donor.” For adultery, polygamy, sacrilege,
perjury, murder, witchcraft, infanticide, and fratricide he had a
particular tax. In fact, “there was no vein in the gold mine that they
did not find the means of working.” Tetzel executed the commission
with great zeal and success, but with no less indecency. He assured
the purchasers that their crimes, however enormous, would be
forgiven; that the efficacy of indulgences was so great that the most
heinous sins would be expiated and remitted by them, and the
person freed both from punishment and guilt; and that this was the
unspeakable gift of God to reconcile men to himself.

In order that my readers may understand more fully the frightful

extent of the wickedness to which the traffic led, I give the usual
form of the letters of absolution, which was as follows:

May the Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve
thee by the merits of his most holy passion. And I, by his
authority, that of his apostles Peter and Paul, and of the most holy
pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve
thee, first, from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner
they may have been incurred; then from all thy sins,
transgressions and excesses, how enormous soever they may be;
even such as are reserved for the cognizance of our most holy
 father the pope and for the apostolic see. I remit to thee all
punishment which thou deservest in purgatory on their account;
and I restore thee to the holy sacraments of the Church, to the
unity of the faithful, and to the innocence and purity which thou
possessedst at baptism; so that when thou diest the gates 73
of punishment shall be shut, and the gates of the paradise
of delights shall be opened; and if thou shall not die at present,
this grace shall remain in full force when thou art at the point of
death. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost. Friar John Tetzel, commissary, has signed with his own
hand.

This abolished all guilt and fear of hell in the minds of the
purchasers, and inasmuch as the sale of indulgences was universally
prevalent, the Church of Rome was everywhere triumphant,
darkness covered the earth, and gross darkness the people; the
children of God were driven to caves and secret places of the earth,
hunted by armed bands at the command of the apostate Church.
The condition was appalling!

74
 PART III
The Reformation in Europe

CHAPTER I.
JOHN WYCKLIFFE

The Roman Catholic Church, as we have already seen, had reached

such a degree of corruption in doctrine and practice, so deep and
widespread, that it would seem quite impossible for it to reach
further degradation. The name of Christ was everywhere professed,
but a devout believer was seldom found. The Christ was hidden that
his pretended representatives might be all in all. Justification by faith
was denounced in order to open up a trade in indulgences to enrich
the papacy by the sale of salvation. The commands of God were
openly made void by the doctrines and commandments of men.
Apostolic order and ordinances had given place to those of the “man
of sin.” “The mystery of lawlessness” stood out in full proportions.

And yet, notwithstanding all this, there were forces at work, in

different parts of Europe, moving on to conflict and reform that were
destined to break the all but universal sway of the papacy. There can
be no doubt that the invention of printing, the gradual revival of
learning, and the enlarged acquaintance with the Scriptures, all
made directly against the then existing conditions. The Reformation
was effected and the names of its chief actors have come down to
us with deserved honor, and yet how imperfect the work done and
the spirit of the doers of it. Measuring both by the doctrine and
practice of the apostles can not but compel the conclusion that the
Reformation from the first onward needed immense reformation to
bring it up to the measures of the divine standard. And still it may be
that any nearer approach to a completely scriptural work and spirit
would have been quite futile under the existing conditions.

John Wyckliffe, who flourished in the latter part of the fourteenth

century, popularly called the “Morning Star of the 75
Reformation,” was the first to distinguish himself in fighting
against the supremacy of the pope, the doctrine of
transubstantiation, and the abuses of the hierarchy. As early as 1360
he became known as the opponent of the mendicant friars who
infested England, interfering with school discipline, as well as
domestic relations. He exposed the venality and superstition of the
monkish orders with a vigor of reasoning and a keen satire. Efforts
were made by a commission appointed by the king to have the evil
abrogated, and such arrangements were finally made; but the pope
soon violated the compact and Parliament again took action against
the Roman usurpations. These developments fully opened the eyes
of Wyckliffe to the intolerant corruption of the Roman See, and he
began henceforth to argue and teach, preach and write, boldly and
without reserve against the papal system.

TRANSLATES THE BIBLE INTO ENGLISH

But the greatest work of Wyckliffe for the enlightenment of the

world was the translation of the Bible into the English language. But
in order to appreciate the difficulties of his task, we should
remember that Rome had not only utterly neglected and contemned
the Sacred writings, but had interdicted their translation into any
vernacular tongue. She claimed that it was not only unlawful, but
injurious, for the people at large to read the Scriptures. Nor was this
idea left to pass current merely as a received opinion, but it was a
subject which was considered by councils, and canons were enacted
against it. Not to mention other proofs of this, more than one
hundred and fifty years before Wyckliffe had finished his translation
of the Bible, in the year 1229, at the Council of Toulouse, forty-five
canons were passed and issued for the extinction of heresy and the
re-establishment of peace. One of these canons involved the first
court of inquisition, and another, the first canon, forbade the
Scriptures to the laity, or the translation of any portion of them into
the common tongue. The latter was expressed in the following very
pointed terms:

We also forbid the laity to possess any of the books of the Old or
New Testament, except, perhaps, the Psalter or Breviary for 76
the Divine Offices, or the Hours of the Blessed Virgin, which
some, out of devotion, wish to have; but having any of these
books translated into the vulgar tongue, we strictly forbid.

In the face of all this, and far more than I can now explain, Wyckliffe
performed his arduous task of translation. Of this great work, a
competent critic most appropriately remarks: “From an early period
of his life he had devoted his various learning, and his powerful
energies of mind, to effect this, and, at length, by intense
application on his part, and from assistance from a few of the most
learned of his followers, he had the glory to complete a book, which,
alone, would have been sufficient (or at least ought) to have
procured the veneration of his own age, and the commendation of
posterity.”

While engaged in this work, in the year 1379, he was taken violently
ill, and the friars, imagining that his course was now near its end,
contrived to visit him. Four of their ablest men had been selected, or
a friar from each of the mendicant orders, and they were admitted
to a patient hearing. After reminding him of the great injury he had
done to their order, they exhorted him, as one near to death, that he
would now, as a true penitent, bewail and revoke, in their presence,
whatever he had said to their disparagement. As soon as they had
done, Wyckliffe, calling for his servant, desired to be raised up on his
pillow; and then collecting all his strength, with a severe and
expressive countenance, and in a tone not to be misunderstood,
exclaimed:
 I shall not die, but live to declare the evil deeds of the friars.

Confounded at such a reply, they immediately left him; and he

recovered, to finish in the next year his translation of the entire
Bible.

As this was before the invention of printing, the translation could

only be diffused by the laborious process of transcription; but
transcribed it was most diligently, both entire and in parts, and as
eagerly read. There were those who, at all hazards, sought wisdom
from the Book of God, and their number could not be few. A
contemporary writer, an enemy, and in the language of hatred and
fear combined, with the wish to damage the cause, affirmed that “a
man could not meet two people on the road, but one of them was a
disciple of Wyckliffe.” Certainly the opportunity was gladly 77
received by the people; and while the word of the Lord did not
have “free course,” there can be no question that it was “glorified” in
the reception given it by many. The same bitter opponent, in the
tone of deep lamentation, makes the following remarkable admission
about the wonderful progress made in the face of bitter persecution:

The soldiers, with the dukes and earls, are the chief adherents of
this sect, its most powerful defenders, and its invincible
protectors. This Master John Wyckliffe hath translated the Gospel
out of Latin into English, which Christ had entrusted with the
clergy and doctors of the Church, that they might minister it to the
laity and weaker sort, according to the state of the times and the
wants of men. So that by this means the Gospel is made vulgar,
and laid more open to the laity, and even to women who can read,
than it used to be to the most learned of the clergy and those of
the best understanding! And what was before the chief gift of the
clergy and doctors of the Church, is made forever common to the
laity!

At about the same time another papal dupe, in the same spirit, most
vehemently urged:
 The prelates ought not to suffer that every one at his pleasure
should read the Scriptures, translated even into Latin; because, as
is plain from experience, this has been many ways the occasion of
falling into heresies and errors. It is not, therefore, politic that any
one, wheresoever and whensoever he will, should give himself to
the frequent study of the Scriptures.

These men just quoted referred to the period between 1380 and
1400, and it was one, though but too short, which distinguished
England from every other country in Europe. However transient, it
was one that had much to do with wresting the world from the
appalling darkness and ruin wrought by the papacy, and flooding the
world with the glorious sunlight of eternal truth. It was all in vain
that the bishops, with the primates of Canterbury at their head
bellowed and remonstrated with the people, wrote letters to and
received letters from Rome, made and executed fearful threats of
punishment; the Bible had been translated, the people transcribed
and read, and sent copies of it far and near.

In 1400 Parliament enacted a law that gave bishops the power to

hand over obstinate or relapsed heretics to sheriffs and magistrates,
who were enjoined to have them publicly burnt. In 1401 78
William Sawtre, a devout man, was burnt at Smithfield as a
heretic. Of the many victims, I have only space to mention J. Badby,
who was burnt in a barrel; and especially that generous friend of the
Reformation, Sir John Oldcastle, who frequently sheltered preachers
of reform in his castle, and devoutly did he adhere to these
doctrines, since, as he himself attested his whole life through them
had undergone a change. Henry V had made vain efforts to induce
him to change from his faith; but he refused to recant, and was
condemned as a “pernicious heretic” in 1413. But during the respite
granted him, he managed to escape into Wales, where he concealed
himself till 1417, when he was captured and executed at St. Giles’
Fields, amidst the most barbarous tortures, being roasted over a
slow fire. The escape of Oldcastle and the rumors of a Lollard
insurrection the following year were made the occasion for fresh
measures of persecution. In 1414 it was ordered that all public
officials should bind themselves by oath to aid in the extirpation of
heresy, and that the lands and possessions of those convicted of
heresy should be confiscated.

In 1416 a regular inquisition was instituted in every parish of the

diocese of Canterbury. Among the common people, however, the
desire for Biblical knowledge continued to spread; secret
conventicles were held; and though the persecution, which lasted till
1431, may have crushed the “heresy,” the principles lived and spread
worldwide, and became the influence that led to reformation in other
parts.

79

CHAPTER II.
William Tyndale

If I were to follow the strictly chronological order, I would here give

a sketch of Luther and his work, but as I have given an account of
the work of Wyckliffe, it is proper to give attention to the work of
William Tyndale, because I am now seeking the basic principle of the
return to apostolic purity and simplicity.

At the opening of the sixteenth century, a period of great interest to

all the world, were four men—Le Fevre, in France; Zwingli, in
Switzerland; Luther, in Germany, and Tyndale, in England—destined
to make a great impression on the world for all time. But they were
wholly unknown to each other. In France, Switzerland and Germany
were the living voices throughout life, of the men raised up, calling
upon their countrymen to hear and obey the truth; and so it was in
England a century and a half before, in the case of Wyclif. But in the
case of Tyndale, the procedure is entirely different, and out of the
usual course pursued in other lands. He had, it is true, lifted up his
voice with some effect, but he was driven from his native land, never
to return. In the other cases the men lived and died at home. Le
Fevre when above one hundred years old wept because he had not
felt and displayed the courage of a martyr; Zwingli, in battle for his
country; and Luther, after his noble intrepidity, expired in his sick
chamber; but Tyndale was strangled and his body burnt to ashes in
a foreign land. Englishmen, Scotchmen and Germans were gathered
together against him; yes, men of three nations at least concur to
confer upon him the martyr’s crown, so that among all his
contemporaries, in several respects, but especially as a translator of
the Scriptures, he stands alone.

The political and literary condition of England under Cardinal Wolsey

did not afford the slightest indication that the Scriptures were about
to be given to the people in their native tongue, but the reverse. In
justice to that event it is necessary to observe, also, the nature of
that connection which had existed for ages between Britain and
Rome. Indeed, under Henry VIII it reached its climax. This 80
connection sustained a peculiarly complicated character. There
were no fewer than twelve distinct sources of revenue that went
directly to Rome. These altogether were operating on the inhabitants
without exception, and with as much regularity as the rising and
setting of the sun. “It was a pecuniary connection of immense
power, made to bear upon the general conscience, which knew no
pause by day or night; falling, as it did, not merely on the living, but
on the dying and the dead!”

In no other country throughout Europe was the papal system in all

its oppressive and fearful integrity more fully maintained. Under the
unscrupulous and imperative Henry VIII, who gloried in his
knowledge of divinity and prided himself on his orthodoxy, with a
prime minister so well known in every foreign court, and who himself
yearned for the pontificate, England had become the mainstay of the
system. In Worcester diocese above every other part of England was
this power of Rome most intensely felt, yet here in about 1484 was
William Tyndale born whose labors were destined to work the
overthrow of its power in the realm.
 ERASMUS ARRIVES IN ENGLAND

Erasmus arrived in England in 1498, and was delighted to find a

taste for the study of Hebrew, Greek and Latin so pronounced, and
he pursued his studies with great diligence and satisfaction. His zeal
so inspired others that the influence of his residence there may be
regarded as the opening of a new era in letters in that country. In
1516 the first edition of his Greek New Testament was published,
accompanied by a new Latin translation, and spread far and wide.
He received the hearty congratulations of his friends, but its
appearance raised up a host of enemies.

Notwithstanding the opposition during the period during 1477 to

1526, fourteen editions of the Bible in Hebrew and Greek were
published, and not one of the sacred originals had ever been
restrained by any government. In fact, at this time, so far from such
restraint being imposed in England, it was encouraged; as not a man
in high authority seems to have foreseen that the cultivation of the
knowledge of the original language would necessarily lead to a 81
translation of the sacred volume into the common tongue.
Even Henry VII transmitted to the university a royal mandate “that
study of the Scriptures in the original language should not only be
permitted, but received as a branch of the academical institution.”
And this was at the period when Tyndale resided at Cambridge and
Oxford. The advantages thus combined fully explain the source of
the superior attainments in learning which he afterward turned to
such wonderful account.

About 1504 Tyndale went to Oxford University, and took his degree
of B.A., in 1508. One of the colleges at Oxford had forbidden the
entrance of the Greek New Testament within its walls “by horse or
by boat, by wheels or on foot.” Possibly owing to this enmity Tyndale
left Oxford for Cambridge, where Erasmus was teaching Greek and
issuing his edition of the Greek New Testament. About the close of
1521 we find Tyndale as tutor in the family of Sir John Walsh, at
Little Sudbury, in Gloucestershire, twelve miles north of Bristol.
Walsh always kept a good table, and abbots, deans, archdeacons,
and divers other doctors who were fond of discussion, were often
invited to share his hospitality. In these discussions Tyndale always
bore a conspicuous and decided part. He had an uncomfortable way
of crushing his opponents by clinching his arguments with a “thus
saith the Lord.” His outspoken way caused Lady Walsh many an
uneasy hour, and she often reminded him that bishops, abbots and
others having an income of hundreds of pounds yearly held views
the very opposite of his, “and were it reason that we should believe
you before them?” Not being so skilled in the use of Scripture
knowledge as some in these days of Gospel light and liberty, this
was very embarrassing to him, a moneyless man, coming from such
a source. In order to strengthen his position with his wavering
hostess by the testimony of Erasmus, whose fame was resounding
throughout Europe, he translated his “Christian Soldier” into English
and presented it to Walsh and his wife. This won her, and they did
not invite the clergy to their table any more. This change was
attributed to Tyndale, and ever afterward they treasured a grudge
against him. Of this opposition Fox says: “These blind and 82
rude priests, flocking together to the alehouse, for that was
their preaching place, raged and railed against him; affirming that
his sayings were heresy, adding of their own heads moreover unto
his sayings more than ever he spake.”

TYNDALE RESOLVES TO TRANSLATE THE BIBLE INTO ENGLISH

Fortunately Tyndale has left on record his reflections at this period of

his life. He says:

A thousand books had they lever [rather] to be put forth against

their abominable doings and doctrines, than that the Scripture
should come to light. For as long as they may keep that down,
they will so darken the right way with the mist of their sophistry,
and so tangle them that either rebuke or despite their
abominations with arguments of philosophy, and with worldly and
 apparent reasons of natural wisdom, and with wresting the
Scriptures to their own purpose, clean contrary unto the process,
order, and meaning of the text; and so delude them in descanting
upon it with allegories, and amaze them, expounding it in many
senses, whose light the owls can not hide, that though thou feel in
thy heart, and art sure, how that all is false that they saw, yet
couldst thou not solve their subtle riddles. Which thing only moved
me to translate the New Testament. Because I have proved by
experience, how that it is impossible to establish the lay people in
any truth, except the Scripture were plainly laid before their eyes
in their mother tongue, that they might see the process, order and
meaning of the text; for else, whatever truth is taught them, these
enemies of all truth quench it again—partly with the smoke of
their bottomless pit (Rev. 9), that is with apparent reasons of
sophistry, and traditions of their own making; and partly in
juggling with the text, expounding it in such a sense as it is
impossible to gather of the text itself.

The Convocation of Canterbury had expressly forbidden any man to

translate any part of the Scripture in English, or to read any such
translation without authority of the bishop, an authority not likely to
be granted. The study of the Bible was not even a part of the
preparatory study of the religious teachers of the people. Writing
against Alexander Alesius to James V of Scotland, Cochlæus, the
notorious Roman Catholic theologian, writes about the Bible as
follows:

The New Testament translated into the vulgar tongue, is in truth

the food of death, the fuel of sin, the veil of malice, the pretext of
false liberty, the protection of disobedience, the corruption 83
of discipline, the depravity of morals, the termination of
concord, the death of honesty, the well-spring of vice, the disease
of virtues, the instigation of rebellion, the milk of pride, the
nourishment of contempt, the death of peace, the destruction of
charity, the enemy of unity, the murderer of truth. (Demaus’
Biography of William Tyndale, page 358.)
With such a sentiment prominent among the clergy, there is no
surprise at the danger to which Tyndale subjected himself when in a
warm discussion he revealed his intention. Of this incident Fox says:

Communing and disputing with a certain learned man in whose

company he happened to be, he drove him to that issue, that the
learned man said, “We were better to be without God’s law than
the pope’s.” Master Tyndale hearing that, answered him, “I defy
the pope and all his laws; and if God spare my life many years, I
will cause a boy that driveth the plow to know more of the
Scripture than you do!”

After this, the murmurings of the priests increased to a fury. Such

language flew over the country as on the wings of the wind. They
branded him as a heretic, and hinted loudly of burning him.

It was now evident to Tyndale that a crisis had been reached, and
he saw too clearly that it would be impossible for him to remain
longer at Little Sudbury in the home of Walsh in peaceful
prosecution of his great purpose. This purpose he was determined to
prosecute whatever inconvenience or danger it might bring upon
him; and it seemed to him quite possible that he might find that
liberty in some other part of England. He resolved, therefore, to give
up his position which he held in the family of Walsh. So with the
good will of Walsh, he made his way to London, hoping to find in
Cuthburt Tunstal, Bishop of London, a liberal patron under whose
protection the work might be prosecuted. Tunstal accorded him an
interview, acknowledged his scholarship, but said that his house was
already full, and advised him to seek a place elsewhere. While in
London Tyndale preached at St. Dunstan’s-in-the-West, and greatly
impressed Humphrey Monmouth, a wealthy, educated, traveled cloth
merchant, who took him into his house, where he remained six
months diligently engaged in translating the New Testament. For this
kindness Monmouth was imprisoned in the Tower.
While in London, Tyndale saw men around him led to prison 84
and to death for having or reading the writings of Luther,
which were finding their way into England, and he knew well that a
Bible translation would be still a more dangerous book. At last he
“understood not only that there was no room in my lord of London’s
palace to translate the New Testament, but, also, that there was no
place to do it in all England.” But Tyndale was not the man to put his
hands to the plow and then turn back. If only a life in exile could do
the work, a life of exile he would gladly accept. As Fox remarks: “To
give the people bare text of Scriptures, he would offer his body to
suffer what pain of torture, yea, what death His Grace (Henry VIII)
would so that this be obtained.”

GOES TO HAMBURG

Having now fully decided on going abroad, he sailed direct to

Hamburg, about May, 1524, never to set foot on his native soil
again. Scarcely a year before, he entered London with bright
anticipations of success, but all his anticipations had been cruelly
disappointed, and now in sorrow and sadness he was sailing forth on
the untried dangers of solitude and exile. Had he been able to read
the future that awaited him, and which he afterwards so patiently
bewailed, “the poverty, the exile from his own native land, the bitter
absence from his friends, the hunger, the thirst, the cold, the great
danger wherewith he was everywhere compassed, the innumerable
hard and sharp fightings which he had to endure,” doubtless his
loving soul would have been melted with the spectacle, and yet, no
doubt, the stout and brave heart would have gone forward, “hoping
with his labors to do honor to God, true service to his prince,” and
bestow unspeakable blessings upon his priest-ridden people.

In Hamburg he diligently applied his whole time to translating, but

on being interrupted he moved to Cologne about the first of May,
1525, where he put his translation into the hands of the printer. Not
only was the entire sacred text then translated, but his prologue was
composed before he began to print. At this time John Cochlæus,
dean of Frankfort, the “watchdog of Romanism,” was at Cologne, an
exile from his own city on account of uprisings of the peasants 85
against the clergy. He was occupied at Cologne printing a
book. In consequence of this he became acquainted with the
printers of Cologne, whom he heard confidently boasting over their
cups that whether the king and cardinal would or not all England in
a short time would be furnished the New Testament in English. He
heard that there was “an Englishman there, learned, skilled in
languages, eloquent, whom, however, he never could see or
converse with.” Inviting, therefore, some printers to his lodging, and,
after exciting them with wine, one of them disclosed to him that the
New Testament had been translated into the English language; that
it was then in the hands of the printers, who were then printing an
edition of three thousand copies; and that the expenses were being
met by English merchants, who were to convey it secretly to England
and dispense it widely throughout the realm before the king or the
cardinal could discover or prohibit it.

Though mentally distracted between fear and wonder, Cochlæus

disguised his grief in a cheerful manner; and after having considered
sadly the magnitude of the danger, he deliberated with himself how
he might conveniently obstruct “these very wicked attempts.” So he
went to Herman Rinck, a Senator of Cologne, and a knight, well
known both to the Emperor and the King of England, to whom he
made known the whole affair. On hearing this Rinck went to the
Senate of Cologne, and procured an order interdicting the printers
from proceeding further with the work. Tyndale contrived, however,
to procure the printed sheets, and sailed up the Rhine to Worms
about October, 1525; but Rinck and Cochlæus wrote at once to the
king and cardinal and the Bishop of Rochester to take the utmost
precaution in all the seaports of England, lest that “most pernicious
article of merchandise should be introduced.” Apparently nothing
could have been more complete than the triumph of Cochlæus. He
had not only interrupted the printing of the New Testament at
Cologne, but had disclosed the secret of Tyndale’s intentions to
those who were most able to take effectual steps to prevent the
introduction of the work in England, if he should ever succeed in
getting it printed at all.

This interruption, though felt most keenly at the time by 86

Tyndale, only inflamed his zeal, and the remarkable result was
that two editions were issued by him in the same period in which he
had contemplated only one. Thus the hostility of Cochlæus, which,
as we have seen, threatened to arrest the progress of the work, only
delayed its completion for a time and enabled Tyndale to issue six
thousand copies of his translation instead of three thousand. “Early
in 1526 both editions were sent into England in cases, in barrels, in
bales of cloth, in sacks of flour, and in every other secret way that
could be thought of.” The reception in England was remarkable.
They were eagerly bought and read to the inexpressible joy and
comfort of thousands who had long walked in darkness, and as
eagerly proscribed and sought out for destruction. Sir Thomas More
fiercely attacked the translation as ignorant, dishonest and heretical.
In the autumn Tunstal and Warham issued mandates for the
collection and surrender of copies. Tunstal attacked it in a sermon at
St. Paul’s, and professed to have found three thousand errors in it.
So the cardinal and all the bishops decided that the book should be
burned, which was vigorously carried out. But this was all in vain, for
the tide was fairly flowing and it could not be checked. A formidable
organization was ready in England to welcome and circulate the
books. In proportion to the violence with which the clergy
condemned the books was the esteem in which they were held by
those in England to whom the light was breaking.

BISHOP OF LONDON SUPPLIES MONEY TO PRINT BIBLES

In 1529 Bishop Tunstal went to Antwerp to seize Tyndale’s

Testaments, and by a singular coincident Tyndale also was there and
so it happened that one Parkington, who favored Tyndale, was at
Antwerp at the same time. On being informed by the bishop that he
would be glad to buy the Testaments, Parkington told him that, as
he knew those who had them for sale, he could buy “every book of
them that is imprinted and is here unsold.” The bargain was made,
and as has been said by the quaint chronicler:

The bishop, thinking he had God by the toe, when indeed he had,
as after he thought, the devil by the fist, said: “Gentle Mr. 87
Parkington, do your diligence and get them; and with all my
heart I will pay for them whatsoever they cost you, for the books
are erroneous and nought, and I intend surely to destroy them all,
and to burn them at Paul’s Cross.” Augustus Parkington came to
William Tyndale, and said: “William, I know that thou art a poor
man, and hast a heap of New Testaments and books by thee, for
which thou hast both endangered thy friends and beggared
thyself; and I have now gotten thee a merchant, which, with
ready money, shall dispatch thee of all thou hast, if thou think it
so profitable for yourself.” “Who is this merchant?” said Tyndale.
“The Bishop of London,” said Parkington. “Oh, that is because he
will burn them,” said Tyndale. “Yea, marry,” quoth Parkington. “I
am the gladder,” said Tyndale, “for these two benefits shall come
thereof: I shall get money to bring myself out of debt, and the
whole world will cry out against the burning of God’s Word; and
the overplus of the money that shall remain to me shall make me
more studious to correct the New Testament, and so newly to
imprint the same once again, and I trust the second will much
better like you than ever did the first.” And so went forward the
bargain; the bishop had the books; Parkington had the thanks,
and Tyndale had the money.

After this, Tyndale corrected the same New Testament, and

caused them to be newly imprinted, so that they came thick and
threefold over into England. When the bishop perceived that, he
sent for Parkington, and said to him: “How cometh this, that there
are so many New Testaments abroad? You promised me that you
would buy them all.” Then said Parkington: “Surely, I bought all
that were to be had, but I perceive they have printed more since.
 I see it will never be better so long as they have letters and
stamps; wherefore you were best to buy the stamps, too, and so
you shall be sure.” At which the bishop smiled and so the matter
ended.

It so happened that shortly after this that George Constantine was

apprehended by Sir Thomas More, suspected of certain heresies.
During the time he was in custody, More said to him: “There are
beyond the sea Tyndale, Joyce, and a great many of you, I know
they can not live without help, and I pray thee tell me who they are
that help them thus?” “My lord,” quoth Constantine, “I will tell you
truly, it is the Bishop of London that hath helped us, for he hath
bestowed among us a great deal of money upon New Testaments to
burn them; and that hath been, and yet is, our only succor and
comfort.” “Now my troth,” quoth More, “I think even the same, for so
much I told the bishop before he went about it.”

88
BETRAYED AND MURDERED

Tyndale’s enemies endeavored to decoy him into England, but he

was too wary to be so easily entrapped, for he well knew what
displeasure Henry VIII felt at his tract, called “The Practice of
Prelates,” and what penalty the royal indignation would speedily
inflict. But his enemies in England, whose power had been shaken
by the wide circulation of the English New Testament, were the more
enraged against him, and conspired to seize him on the Continent, in
the name of the Emperor, and through the treachery of one Henry
Philips, a smooth, treacherous villain, in the employ of Stephen
Gardiner, after having invited Tyndale to dine with him, had him
arrested and had him put in the State prison of the Castle of
Vivorde, twenty-three miles from Antwerp, May 23, 1535. The
English merchants aggrieved by the loss of an esteemed friend, and
by this treacherous assault of their rights and privileges, made every
effort to secure his release, but all in vain. The neighboring
University of Louvain thirsted for his blood. He was speedily
condemned, and on Friday, October 6, 1536, he was strangled at the
stake and his body then burned to ashes. At the stake, with a
fervent zeal and a loud voice, he cried: “Lord, open the King of
England’s eyes.”

As an apostle of liberty, Tyndale stands foremost among the writers

of his day, whose heroic fortitude and invincible love of the truth
were heard with a force superior to royal and ecclesiastical
injunctions; and “the very flames to which fanaticism and tyranny
consigned his writings burnt them into the very hearts of the people,
and made them powerful instruments in attacking and converting
multitudes to the principles of the Reformation. It is not
exaggeration to say that the noble sentiments of William Tyndale,
uttered in pure, strong, Saxon English, and steeped in the doctrines
of the Gospel, gave shape to the views of the most conspicuous
promoters of the great movement, who, like himself, sealed their
convictions with their blood.”

89

CHAPTER III.
MARTIN LUTHER

Notwithstanding the fact that the papacy had universal sway over
Europe at the beginning of the sixteenth century, it must be noted
that, from the beginning of the fourteenth century on, there were
insurgents, however varied their cries and watchwords, who were
persistent in their denunciation of the priesthood. The hatred arose
from their intolerable extortions, which were a galling burden. While
the tithing system was an intolerable yoke, the rapacity of the priests
went far beyond tithes in their exactions. In speaking of this
condition, Seebohm, a Spanish historian, says:

I see that we can scarcely get anything from Christ’s ministers but
for money; at baptism money, at marriage money, at bishoping
 money, for confession money—no, not extreme unction without
money! They ring no bells without money, no burials in the Church
without money; so that it seems that Paradise is shut up from
them that have no money. The rich is buried in the church, the
poor in the churchyard. The rich man may marry his nearest kin,
but the poor not so, albeit he is ready to die for love of her. The
rich may eat meat in Lent, but the poor may not, albeit fish be
much dearer. The rich may readily get large indulgences, but the
poor none, because he wanteth money to pay for them. (“The Era
of the Protestant Revolution,” pages 57, 58.)

All the efforts at reformation had always ignominiously failed, and

the papacy with all its abuses had never been more powerful than at
the time John Tetzel was trafficking in indulgences. Just thirty-four
years before this time, Martin Luther was born. His parents were
poor, but it was their desire to give him the best education possible.
When he was fourteen years old they sent him to school at
Magdeburg, where he relied upon the liberality of well-meaning
citizens to supply his needs. The tuition was free at Magdeburg, but
the students were required to provide their own lodgings and meals.
The usual custom was for a company of poor boys to band
themselves together and sing in the front of the house of the
wealthy citizens. Sometimes they would be invited to a meal; at
other times they would receive the remnants of a repast or at 90
least some slices of bread.

After a year had gone by his father decided to send him to Eisenach,
because he hoped that some of his relatives would take a kindly
interest in him; but in this expectation he was mistaken, for as
before he was compelled to beg and sing for his bread. Many times
young Luther became so discouraged that he made up his mind to
return to his home and become a miner like his father. But a very
different life was awaiting him. When he had acquired the discipline
resulting from the long struggle with poverty, a great change took
place.
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