LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 6

I - TITLE : COMMUNICATION

II - TOPICS :

1. What is Communication?
2. The Importance of Communication
3. The Communication Process
4. Basic Methods of Interpersonal Communication
5. Functions of Communication
6. The Basic Goals of Effective Communications
7. Barriers to Communication
8. Kinds of Communication Flow
9. Improving Communication in Organizations

III - TIME FRAME : 5 HRS.

IV – INTRODUCTION

Communication is a requirement for survival and growth not only of people

but of organizations. It is as old as human civilization. Man used to communicate
with his fellow beings by means of sounds, signals, gestures when there was no
language developed. Minus communication, human society could not have been
as it is today. It is communication which has transformed mankind into the most
developed rational and prosperous group on the earth.

V – OBJECTIVES : At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. define communication;
2. discuss the importance of communication to organization;
3. explain the kinds of communication flow;
4. be an effective communicator in an organization.

VI – PRETEST : Questionnaire is in a separate sheet

VII – LEARNING ACTIVITIES

TOPIC #1

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication maybe defined as the transfer of information including

feelings, and ideas from one person to another. The goal of communication is to
have the receiver understand the message as it was intended. The transfer
process, however, is affected by a number of factors that either help or hinder
the message.

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Communication is the activity of conveying information. The word

communication has been derived from the Latin word ‘communis’, meaning to
share. It basically involves a sender, a message and a receiver.

TOPIC #2 : THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Without communication, organization cannot exist. It is through

communication that the individual members of the organization will know
important concerns such as:

1. what their organization is;

2. what objectives their organization wants to achieve;
3. what their roles are in achieving the organization’s objectives;
4. how they will achieve those objectives;
5. who the individual members of the organization are.

Communication is important for coordination of business. It must be

made effective, if the organization is to be effective. An effective communication
system provides management with answers to questions related to what
motivates its workers to perform effectively, what products or services the
costumers want, what products or services the suppliers are providing, and many
others.

Importance of Communication in Business

Communication is the lifeline of a business organization. It is essential for

realizing the objectives of an organization.
According to Millet, “Communication is blood stream of an organization”.
Chester I. Barnard viewed communication as the means by which people are
linked together in an organization to achieve a common purpose.
The importance of communication can be assessed as follows −
• Communication is needed to establish and disseminate the goals of a business
organization.
• The smooth and unperturbed functioning of an enterprise.
• Communication helps the organization in arriving at vital decisions.
• It also helps a lot in planning and coordination.
• It is a basic tool for motivation and an increase in the morale of the employees
largely depend upon the effectiveness of communication.
• It helps a business as means of bringing about maximum production at the
lowest level by maintaining good human relationship in the organization.
• It works as an effective link between branches of the organization situated at
great distances.
• It helps in publicizing goods and services.

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• It reduces rumors and ensures smooth running of the organization as a whole.

TOPIC # 3 – THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is a two-way process in which a sender reaches a

receiver with a message. There is a need for people in organization to have
knowledge of the communication process, and it is the first step to make effective.
There are six components of an effective communication. They are the following:

1. a communication source or sender 4. a receiver

2. a message 5. feedback
3. a channel 6. The environment

ENVIRONMENT

NOISE

ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT

CHANNEL
SENDER RECEIVER

MESSAGE

FEEDBACK

NOISE

ENVIRONMENT

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The Sender

A communication source or sender is a person who makes the attempt to send a

message which could be spoken, written, in sign language, or non-verbal to
another person or a group of persons.

The Message

The message is a purpose or an idea to be conveyed in a communication event.

The message is the actual physical product as a result of encoding. Thus, when

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speaking, the speech is the message; when making gestures, the movements of
the arms and the expressions on the faces are the message.

How the message is received is influenced by the following factors:

1. clarity of the message;

2. alertness of the receiver;
3. complexity and length of the message; and
4. how the information is organized.

A message written or spoken is a language nobody understands will not pass the
criteria for clarity. Of course, the message will not be received properly.

When the receiver is busy doing something else like listening to music, he will
not be able to understand clearly what the person is relating to him in the story.

When the information sent to a receiver is not organized, it will be hard for the
receiver to fully appreciate it.

Below as an example of an information that is not well organized:

The company hired 10 people in 2008; 15 employees were fired in 2009; 26

employees were suspended in 2006; and 30 employees were reprimanded in
2008.

The message has two components:

1. The thought or conceptual component of the message-this is contained in the

words, ideas, symbols, and concepts chosen to relay the message; and

2. The feeling or emotional component of the message – this is contained in the

intensity, force, demeanor, and sometimes the gesture of the communicator or
sender. The second component enriches and clarifies the message and its effect
is to give the message its full meaning.

The Channel

The channel is the medium through which the message travels. It consists of
various types which are as follows:

1. face to face;
2. telephone and cellphones;
3. e-mail;
4. written memos and letters;
5. posted notices; and
6. bulletins.

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Classifications of Communication Channels:

1. Formal is authoritative
2. Informal is done through networks of friendships. This do not follow the chain
of command.

Formal communications are – policies, procedures, memos, office orders, and

other official announcements.

Informal communications are grapevine, gossip which probably transmits

incorrect or untimely information.

The Receiver

The person receiving a message is the receiver. He must interpret and

understand the message. In doing so, however, he will be influenced by factors
like age, gender, beliefs, past experiences, cultural influenes, and his individual
needs.

The Feedback

Feedback refers to the process of communicating how one feels about something
another person has done or said. When a supervisor calls his subordinates over
the phone and asks “how are you getting along with our new recruits ”the answer,
which is actually a feedback, could be : I think we made a mistake in recruiting
these people”.

The Environment

The environment refers to the circumstances in which messages are transmitted

and received. In an environment of trust and confidence, messages are easily
transmitted even if these message are controversial. The advantage of this type
of environment is that management is provided with the opportunity to address a
problem before it develops into a full-blown concern.

The Noise

Noise refers to anything that disrupts communication, including the attitude and
emotions of the receiver. Noise includes loud music, the feeling about sick
relative, children playing in the background and many others.

TOPIC #4 – BASIC METHODS OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

People in organizations transfer meaning between and among each other using
any or all of the three basic methods which consist of the following:

1. verbal;
2. written; and

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3. non-verbal.

Verbal communication is a major means of sending messages. It includes one-

on-one meetings, speeches, grapevine, telephone, departmental or
interdepartmental meetings, presentation, and the like.

The delivery of verbal communication is quick and it provides the opportunity for
a quick feedback. With feedbacks, early correction of errors is made possible.

A major disadvantage of verbal is the distortion of the message when it passes

to several people. This is because people have their own peculiar way of
interpreting messages and this causes distortion of the original message.

Verbal communication is the appropriate method if the sender:

1. wants to appear informal;

2. wants to invite suggestions and ideas which are more likely to spark
discussion;
3. is explaining something complex and people might need to ask for clarification
as he goes along;
4. has important news to impact, such as retrenchment;
5. needs to be very diplomatic and feels he will be more effective face-to-face
than in writing; and
6. has something highly confidential to say and putting it in writing is risky.

Verbal communication is not appropriate when the sender:

1. wants to maintain formality or distance from the other person or a group of
people;
2. wants a permanent record of what has been said;
3. needs receiver’s comments to be in writing for legal reasons; and
4. wants to avoid further discussion of the subject by signaling that the matter is
closed.

QUESTION: Do you think verbal communication is the best method of sending

messages? Why?

Written Communication

Written communication includes memos, notice-boards, and letters to staff,

emails, faxes, internal newspaper, and instant messaging.

The advantages of written communication are the following:

1. it is formal and authoritative;

2. it provides permanent record of what have been said;
3. it provides a document useful for legal purposes;
4. a number of people will receive exactly the same information;
5.it is useful in communicating something complicated;

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6. it is sometimes quicker;
7. it avoids a lengthy discussion; and
8. words can be chosen carefully.

Written communication is not appropriate when:

1. the receiver needs to ask question or seek clarification;

2. more discussion is needed before facts are established;
3. a friendly and informal atmosphere is needed;
4. the message is very important;
5. the message is confidential; and
6. the information may be upsetting to the receiver.

Non-verbal Communication

Below are some non-verbal communications:

1. facial expression;
2. body movements;
3. eye contact; and
4. other physical gestures.

To do: Provide an emoji as interpretation for every body language listed

Below: Let us see how quick are you in receiving the message for
every non-verbal communication.
______________________________________________________________

BODY LANGUAGE INTERPRETATION

______________________________________________________________

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
frown -
smile
raised eyebrows
narrowed eyes
angry
bored
sleepy
inspired
motivated
scared
shocked
in love
lonely

EYE CONTACT
Glancing
Steady

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GESTURE
Pointing finger
Folded arms
Arms at side
Hands uplifted upward

BODY POSTURE
Fidgeting, doodling
Hands on hips
Shrugging shoulders
Squared stance of shoulders
Biting lips, shifting, jingling money

TOPIC #5 – FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

FOUR MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Information function – communication provides information needed in

decision making.
2. Motivation function – communication is a means used to encourage
commitment to organizational objectives.
3. Control function - communication clarifies duties, authority, and
responsibilities, thereby permitting control. If through
effective communication, the worker is informed on what
exactly is expected to do, the information alone enough
for the worker to check if he is performing as expected.
4. Emotive function – communication permits the expression of feelings and the
satisfaction of social needs. Workers are human beings
and they have a need to express their feelings.

TOPIC #6 – BASIC GOALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication is not just transferring message from one person to another. In

organizations, communication must be made effective. Being effective, however,
is not an end but rather a means to an end.

Goals to achieve of effective communication:

1. to gain goodwill;
2. to inquire;
3. to inform; and
4. to persuade.

TOPIC #7 – BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

There are times when the receiver is not able to properly receive or understand
the message as intended by the sender. This is due to a variety of barriers that
may impede the communication effort.

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Below are the following barriers to communication

1. filtering;
2. selective perception;
3. information overload;
4. emotions;
5. language;
6. communication apprehension;
7. absence of feedback;
8. physical separation; and
9. lack of credibility of the sender.

Filtering

Filtering refers to the manipulation of information so that it will be seen more

favorably by the receiver. Telling what the boss wants to hear is filtering.

Selective Perception

Receiver selectively see and hear messages based on their needs, motivations,
experience, background, and other personal characteristics.

For ex. A person who has limited exposure to recruitment will find it difficult to
actively listen to a lecture on current hiring practices.

Information Overload

Information overload refers to the condition on which information inflow exceeds

an individual’s processing capacity. When this happens, the person is no longer
able to understand clearly whatever information is sent to him.

Emotions

The receiver’s feelings affect his ability to understand any message sent to him.
He cannot receive a message as clearly as when he is not angry, excited, or
Afraid.

For ex. When a person is stricken with grief, it cannot be expected that he will be
able to absorb the details of a project presented to him.

Language

Words do not always mean the same thing to different people. This poses barrier
to communication.

For ex. Lavatory, toilet, and restroom mean the same, the word comfort room or
CR is the one more readily understood by many Filipinos.

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Communication Apprehension

Communication apprehension refers to the undue tension and anxiety about oral
communication, written communication, or both. There are people who find it
extremely difficult to talk with others face-to-face or even carry a telephone
conversation.

To compensate, they try to find other means to communicate which oftentimes

are less effective and more time consuming.

Absence of Feedback

Feedback is essential component of effective communication. When feedback is

received by the sender, he can make some clarification if he thinks the receiver
did not clearly understand what the sender means.

The absence of feedback does not provide the sender the opportunity to correct
misimpressions about the message sent. Also, without feedback, the sender will
not know if the message was received.

Physical Separation

Physical separation refers to inferences to effective communication occurring in

the environment where the communication is undertaken.

Below are actual physical barriers:

1. distances between people;

2. walls;
3. an office that is not conducive to communication;
4. an intimidating person posted near the door; or
5. wrong timing.

Lack of credibility of the Sender

Depending on the credibility of the sender, messages can get through the
channel to the receiver. If the sender has low credibility, the message, even if it
gets through, will likely be ignored. This is a type of barrier that should be
overcome by leaders of organizations.

It is not enough that the leaders should be credible. His lieutenants must also be
credible, and the leader should make them credible before the eyes of the
members of the organization. If by omission or commission, he makes a move
that sabotages the credibility of his assistants, it would be tantamount to
sabotaging his own credibility efforts.

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TOPIC #8 – KINDS OF COMMUNICATION FLOW

Flow of Communications that takes place in any Organization:

1. downward;
2. upward; and
3. horizontal.

Downward Communication

Downward communication refers to message flows from higher levels to lower

levels. Their purposes are:

1. to give instructions;
2. to provide information about policies and procedures;
3. to give feedback about performances; and
4. to indoctrinate or motivate.

Techniques to be used in downward communication:

1. letters, meetings, telephone and cell phones;

2. manuals;
3. handbooks; and
4. newsletters.

Upward Communication

Upward communication refers to messages from persons in lower level positions

to persons in higher positions. Its purpose are the following:

1. to provide feedback to higher-ups;

2. to inform higher-ups of progress towards goals; and
3. to relay current problems.

The techniques used in upward communication are:

1. Performance report;
2. suggestion systems;
3. informal gripe sessions;
4. open-door policy; and
5. exit interviews.

Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication refers to messages sent to individuals or groups from

another of the same organizational level or position. Its purpose are:

1. to coordinate activities between departments;

2. to persuade others at the same level of organizations; and

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3. to pass on information about activities or feelings.

The techniques appropriate for horizontal communication are:

1. memos;
2. telephones or cell phones;
3. picnic; and
4. dinners and other social affairs.

TOPIC # 9 – IMPROVING COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS

Ineffective communication can affect people involved in it negatively. It can cause

hurt feelings, and waste of time and valuable resources.

Simple Steps for Effective Communication:

1. the message should be improved so it could be easily understood; and

2. the receiver must improve his skill in understanding the messages to him.

VIII – SELF-EVALUATION

Answer the questions below:

1. Which types of communication do you think is most effective? Why?

Answer :

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. How important a feedback to you?

Answer :
_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

3. Do you think verbal communication is the best method of sending messages?

Why?

Answer :

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_______________________________________________________________

IX – REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

Communication is an essential element of organizations, without communication,

organization cannot exist.

Effective communication consists of six components: the sender, the channel,

the receiver, feedback, and the environment. Noise affects the effectivity of
communication.

Interpersonal communication may be verbal, written or non-verbal.

Communication serves four major functions: information, motivation, control and

emotive.

The basic goals of communication are: 1) to gain goodwill 2.) to inquire 3.)to
inform and 4.) to persuade.

Communication barriers include filtering, selective perception, information

overload, emotions, language and communication apprehensions, absence of
feedback, physical separation, and lack of credibility of the sender.

According to flow, communication may be classified as downward, upward, or

horizontal.

To improve communication, the message must be improved and the skills in

receiving message must also be improved.

X – EVALUATION : Questionnaire is in separate sheet.

XI – REFERENCES :

Medina, R. G., (2011) Human Behavior in Organization, , Rex Book

Store, 856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St. Manila, Philippines

Mosura T. C., Mosura, A. R., Japiz, N. M. (2012) Human Behavior in

Organization, ASCENT Communication Solutions and Publishing
Enterprises Inc., 321-C Palali St. Barangka Ilaya, Mandaluyong City,
1551.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/effective_communication/effective_commun
ication_introduction.htm

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MODULE 7

I - TITLE : LEADERSHIP

II - TOPICS :

1. What is Leadership
2. Kinds of Leadership
3. Power & the Leader
4. Theories About Leadership

III - TIME FRAME : 4 HRS.

IV – INTRODUCTION

Leadership is a very important, if not the most important factor in the success of
organizations. This has been pointed out time and again throughout history by
leaders like Abraham Lincoln, Julius Cesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Oliver
Cromwell, and many others. In business, the exemplary leadership abilities of
Walt Disney , Bill Gates, Akito Morita, John D. Rockefeller, and many others are
proofs that with the kind of leadership, organizations can succeed.

V – OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module the students will be able to:

1. define leadership;
2. discuss the different types, models of leadership; and
3. explain how to become an effective leader;

VI – LEARNING ACTIVITIES

TOPIC #1 - WHAT IS LEADERSHIP

Leadership may be defined as the process of guiding and directing the behavior
of people in the organization in order to achieve certain objectives.

In a competitive situation, it is often leadership that spells the difference between

success and failure. Even when the organization is short of material resources,
the right leadership can sometimes get people so inspired that they are able to
perform credibly.

Leadership is that element that convinces members of an organization to behave

in such a manner that will facilitate the accomplishment of the goals of the
organization.

The Difference between Leadership and Management

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Leading is the other functions of management. The other functions consist of

planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. Without sufficient leadership,
thee other functions can be rendered useless because people will not be
motivated to put them in operation.

MANAGER LEADER

Rational problem solvers Intuitive, more visionary

Creates goals Creates a vision
Change agents Maintains status quo
Takes risks Control risks
Rely on existing proven skills Grow personally
Builds systems and Processes Builds relationship
direct coach
Have employees Create fans
Primarily concerned with results Concerns with efficiency of results
Obtain power from above Obtain power from below

TOPIC #2 - KINDS OF LEADERSHIP

1. Formal; and
2. informal.

Formal Leadership refers to the process of influencing others to pursue official

objectives. Formal leaders are vested with formal authority and such, they
generally have a measure of legitimate power. They rely on expedient
combination of reward, coercive reference, and expert power.

Informal Leadership refers to the process of influencing others to pursue

unofficial objectives. Informal leaders lack formal authority. Like formal leaders,
they rely on expedient combination of reward, coercive, referent,, and expert
power.

Informal leaders who are satisfied with their jobs are valuable assets of the
organization. When they are not satisfied, they become liabilities. Their power to
motivate people can be used to convince employees to cause harm to the
organization.

TOPIC #3 - POWER AND THE LEADER

The main concern of a leader is to influence people to behave as he wants them

to. The leader, however, can influence only if he possess power, and this
emanates only from either the group or the leader.

Classification of Power that a leader may us to convince subordinate.

1. Position Power; or
2. Personal power.

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Position Power

Types of Position power that derived as a consequence of the leader’s position.

1. Legitimate power
2. Reward power
3. Coercive power

Legitimate power. Also referred to as authority, this power emanate’s from a

person’s position in the organization.

The legitimate power vested in a person is characterized by the following:

1. It is invested in a person’s position;

2. It is accepted by the subordinates;
3. Authority is used vertically.

Reward power. This power emanates from one’s ability to grant rewards to those
who comply with command or respect. The leader’s capacity to provide
promotions, money, praise, and other rewards influences the behavior of
subordinates.

Coercive Power. This power arises from the expectation of subordinates that
they will be punished if they do not conform to the wishes of the leader. The
punishment can take the form of dismissal, suspension or transfer to a less
desirable task, and the like.

Personal power.

1. Expert power;
2. Referent power.

Expert power. An expert power possess and can dispense valued information
generally exercise expert power over those in need of such information. Doctor’s,
lawyers, and computer specialists are examples f persons who may have expert
power.

Referent power. This power refers to the ability of leaders to develop followers
from the strength of their own personalities. Leaders who possess this power
have a personal magnetism, an air of confidence. And a passionate belief in
objectives that attract and hold followers.

TOPIC #4 – THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

1. Trait Theories;
2. Behavioral Theories;
3. Contingency Theories.

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Trait theories of leadership consider leaders to possess common traits. Early

researchers on leadership placed emphasis on traits and had resulted in the
determination of a wide span of personal attributes such as physical appearance,
intelligence, and self-confidence.

It was found that the average person who occupies a position of leadership
exceeds the average number of his group to some degree on the following
factors:

1. Sociability;
2. Persistence;
3. Initiative;
4. knowing how to get things done;
5. Self-confidence;
6. alertness to and insight into situations;
7. Cooperativeness;
8. Popularity;
9. Adaptability;
10. Verbal Facility.

Later, researchers, guided by their findings, drafted a more general view of what
good leaders have in common. This consists of the following:

1. Extraversion – individuals who like being around with people and are able to
assert themselves;
2. Conscientiousness –individuals who are disciplined and keep commitments
that they make.
3. Openness – individuals who are creative and humble;
4. Emotional intelligence – individuals who are able to understand and manage
their personal feelings and emotions, as well as their emotions towards other
individual, events , and objects.

A single statement that describes what trait theories assume is that

“leaders are born than made”.

Behavioral Theories

These theories propose that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from

nonleaders.

Four theories related to leadership behavior:

1. The Ohio State University studies

2. The University of Michigan studies
3. The Yuki studies
4. The Managerial Grid

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Results of studies from the Ohio University – beginning with over a thousand
dimensions, they narrowed the list to two categories as described by employees:

Two dimensions were referred to as:

1. Initiating structure; and

2. Consideration.

Initiating structures refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to define his or
her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. The leader
with a high initiating structure tendency focuses on goals and results, so he or
she might be seen as similar to production-oriented supervisor.

Structure is initiated by activities such as assigning specific tasks, specifying

procedures to be followed, scheduling work, and clarifying expectations.

Consideration describes the degree to which the leader creates an environment

of emotional support, warmth, friendliness, and trust. The leader’s behavior would
be one that is friendly and approachable, looking out for the personal welfare of
the group, keeping the group informed about the new developments, and doing
small favors for group members.

The findings of the Ohio studies indicate that successful leaders are those that
are engaged not in one of the two behaviors but in both, i.e., initiating and
consideration.

University of Michigan Studies-

Result of studies : Behavioral characteristics of leaders that appeared to be

related to measures of Performance effectiveness’

The effectiveness criteria used are as follows:

1. Productivity of work hour or other similar measures of the organization’s

success in achieving its production goals;
2. Job satisfaction of members of the organization;
3. Turnover, absenteeism, and grievance rates;
4. Costs;
5. scrap loss; and
6. Employee and managerial motivation.

In the course of their studies, the researchers identified two distinct styles of
leadership:

1. job-centered; and
2. Employee-centered.

Job-centered managers set tight work standards, organized tasks carefully

prescribed the work methods to be followed, and supervised closely.

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Employee-centered managers encouraged group members to participate in

goal setting and other work decisions, and helped to ensure high performance by
engendering trust and mutual respect.

The researchers found out that the most productive work groups tended to have
leaders who were employee-centered rather than job-centered.

Yuki studies –

The results of the studies isolate nineteen behaviors consisting the ff:

1. Performance emphasis. The extent to which a leader emphasizes the

importance of subordinate performance, tries, to improve productivity and
efficiency, tries to keep subordinates working up to their capacity, and checks on
their performance.

2. Consideration. The extent to which a leader is friendly, supportive, and

considerate in his or her behavior toward subordinates and tries to be fair and
objectives;

3. Praise-recognition. The extent to which a leader provides praise and

recognition to subordinates with effective performance with effective
performance, shows appreciation for their special efforts and contributions, and
makes sure they get credit for their helpful ideas and suggestions.

4. Decision-participation. The extent to which a leader consults with subordinates

and otherwise allows them to influence his or her decisions.

5. Training-coaching. The extent to which a leader determines training needs for

subordinates and provides any necessary training and coaching.

6. Problem-solving. The extent to which a leader takes the initiative in proposing

solutions to serious work-related problems and acts decisively to deal with such
problems when a prompt solution is needed.

7. Work-facilitation. The extent to which a leader obtains for subordinates any

necessary supplies, equipment, support services, or other resources, eliminates
problems in the work environment, and removes other obstacles that interfere
with the work.

8. Inspiration

9. Structuring reward contingencies

10. Autonomy-Delegation

11. Role clarification

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12. Goal setting

13. Information Dissemination

14. Planning

15. Coordinating

16. Representation

17. Interaction Facilitation

18. Conflict Management

19. Criticism discipline.

The Managerial Grid.

This proposes that there is a best way to manage people, i.e., the way used by
manager, who has 9 units of concern for production and 9 units of concern for
people.

The grid has 9 possible positions along each axis, creating 81 different positions
in which the leader’s style may fall. Managers were found to perform best under
a 9,9 style rather than the other style like 9,1 (the authority type) or 1,1 ( the
laissez-faire type).

A brief description of selected styles in the grid is provided as follows:

1,1 Impoverished manager, also referred to as laissez- faire leaders. Leaders in

this position have little concern for people or productivity, avoid taking sides, and
stay out of conflicts. They do just enough to get by. This leadership style is a form
of abdication of responsibility.

1,9 Country club manager. Leaders in this position have great concern for people
and little concern for production. They try to avoid conflicts and concentrate on
being well-like. To them, no task is important than good interpersonal relations.
Their goal is to keep people happy.

9,1 Authority-obedience manager. Leaders in this position have medium-of-the-

road manager. Leaders in this position have medium concern for people and
production. He works to motivate people to reach their highest levels of
compassionate.

Contingency Theories.

The traits and behavioral theories failed to point out that leadership situations are
not similar, and it is easy to pressure that there is no single leadership style that
will fit all situations. This line of thinking led researchers to engage in research in

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research activities that were later called contingency. The individual researchers
share a fundamental assumption: successful leadership occurs when the leader’s
style matches the situation.
The various theories related to the situational approach of leadership consist of
sthe following:

1. Continuum of Leadership Behavior – by Tannenbaum and Schmidt

2. The Contingency Leadership Model- by Fiedler

3. The Path-Goal – by House and Mitchell

4. The Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theories

5. The Leader-Member Exchange Approach – by Graen

6. The Normative Decision Model – by Vroom and Lago

7. The Muczyk- Reimann Model

Continuum of Leadership Behavior.

The first contingency model of leadership was developed by Robert

Tannembaum and Warren H. Schmidt and is referred to as the continuum of
leadership behavior. This model consists of seven alternative ways for managers
to approach decision making, depending on how much participation they want to
allow subordinates in the decision making process.

Below are the alternative behaviors of the leader which are situated between the
two extremes of authoritarian and participative approaches.

ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIORS OF THE LEADER

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager
makes “sells” presents presents presents Defines Permits
decision decision ideas and tentative problems, Limits, Subordinates
and invites decision gets Asks To
announces questions subject suggestions, Group Function
it To change makes To make within limits
decision decision Defined by
superior

(Authoritarian Participation

Boss-centered (subordinates-
centered
Leadership) Leadership)

CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR

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The leader’s choices depend on three factors:

1. Forces in the manager;

2. Forces in subordinates; and
3. Forces in the situation.

Under this approach, the effective leaders are flexible, able to select leadership
behaviors needed in a given time and place.

Forces in the manager consist of:

➢ The manager’s background;

➢ Knowledge;
➢ Values; and
➢ Experience.

How the manager will lead will primarily be influenced by these forces.

For example:

If the manager working for ten years as a subordinate of a well-performing leader

Who adapted the participative style, he will tend to be a participative leader
himself.

In choosing an appropriate leadership style, the manager must also consider the
forces in subordinates.

The leadership style of greater participation and freedom can be exercised by the
manager if the subordinates:

1. Are craving for independence and freedom of action;

2. Want to have decision making responsibility;
3. Identify with the organization’s goals;
4. Are knowledgeable and experienced enough to deal with the problem
efficiently;
5. Have experience with previous managers that lead them to expect
participative management.

When the above mention conditions are absent, managers will have to lean
toward the authoritarian style.

Lastly, the manager’s choice of leadership style must reckon with situational
forces such as:

➢ The organization’s preferred style;

➢ The specific work group;
➢ The nature of the group’s tasks;
➢ The pressure of time; and
➢ Environmental factors.

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The Contingency Leadership Model.

This is a leadership model developed by Fred Fiedler which proposes that

effective group performance depends on the proper match between the
leader’s style and the degree to which the situation favors the leader.

To determine how favorable the leadership environment is, Fiedler maintains

that it will depend on three factors:

1. Leader-member relations;
2. Task structure; and
3. Position power.

Leader-member relations refer to the degree of confidence, trust, and

respect the followers have in their leader.

Task structures refers to the extent to which the tasks the followers are
engaged in are structured. The tasks structure is high when the tasks is
clearly specified and known as to:

1. What followers are supposed to do;

2. How they will do it;
3. When and in what sequence it is to be done; and
4. What decision options they have.

Task structure is low when the task is unclear, ambiguous, or unspecifiable.

Position Power refers to the power inherent in the leadership position.

Generally, greater authority means greater position power. The leader with
a strong position power will find it easier to perform his job. Some positions
such as presidency of a big manufacturing firm, carry a great deal of power
and authority. The president of a civic organization, on the other hand, has
less power over members. Thus, leaders with high position power can easily
influence subordinates, while those with less position power finds it difficult
to perform their tasks.

The Path-Goal Model

This is a leadership model developed by Robert House and Terrence

Mitchell which states that the leader’s job is to create a work environment
through structure, support, and rewards that helps employees reach the
organization’s goals.

The Two Major Roles are:

1. The creation of a good orientation; and

2. The improvement of the path toward the goals so that they will be attained.

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House and Mitchell identified four leadership behaviors:

1. The directive leader. This is the type of leader who lets followers know
what is expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific
guidance as to how to accomplish tasks.

2. The supportive leader. This is the type of leader who is friendly and shows
concern for the needs of the followers.

3. The participative leader. This is the leader who consults with followers
and uses their suggestions before making a decision.

4. The achievement – oriented leader. This is the leader who sets

challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level.

According to House, leaders are flexible and any of them can display any
or all of these behaviors depending on their circumstances.

The Hershey – Blanchard Leadership Theory.

Developed by Paul Hershey and Kenneth Blanchard, the Situational

Leadership Theory (SLT) suggests that a leader’s style should be
determined by matching it with the maturity level (or readiness) of each
subordinate.

The leader must know follower’s readiness and then use a leadership style
that fits the level. Readiness refers to the ability and willingness of
subordinates to take responsibility for directing their own behavior.

Readiness consists of two concerns:

1. Job readiness (or task competence); and

2. Psychological readiness (or commitment)

A person who has high task competence has the knowledge and abilities
to perform the job without a manager structuring or directing the work. A
person who has high commitment has the self- motivation and desire to
do high quality work.

Based on the foregoing, subordinates maybe classified as follows:

1. Those with low competence and low commitment (D-1);

2. Those with low competence but with high commitment (D-2);

3. Those with high competence but with low commitment (D-3); and

4. Those with high competence and high commitment (D-4).

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To match the various states of readiness by subordinates, Hershey and

Blanchard devised four leadership styles available to leaders:

1. A “directing” style that is best for low follower readiness. The direction
by this style defines roles for people who are unable and unwilling to take
responsibility themselves, it eliminates any insecurity about the task that
must be done.

2. A ‘”coaching” style that is best for low moderate follower readiness. This
style offers both task direction and support for people who are unable but
willing to take task responsibility. It involves combining directive approach
with explanation and reinforcement in order to maintain enthusiasm.

3. Ä “supporting” style that is best for moderate to high follower readiness.

Able but unwilling followers require supportive behavior in order to
increase their motivation.; by allowing followers to share in decision
making, this style helps enhance the desire to perform a task.

4. A “delegating” style that is best for high readiness. This style provides
little in terms of direction and support for the task at hand; it allows able
and willing followers to take responsibility for what needs to be done.

The Leader-Member Exchange Approach.

This refers to the leadership theory developed by George Graen and his
associates which recognize the leaders develop unique working
relationships with each group member. Leaders and their followers
exchange information. Resources, and role expectations that determine
their quality of their interpersonal relationship.

Normative Decision Model.

Also known as “”the leader-participation model” and “decision making

model of leadership”. This was developed by Victor and Phillip Yetton.
Years later, the model was revised by Vroom and Arthur Jago to make it
more accurate.

The model views leadership as a decision making process in which the

leader examines certain factors within the situation to determine which
decision making style will be most effective.

Five decision making styles are presented by the normative model, each
reflecting a different degree of participation by group members:

1. Autocratic I – the leader individually solves the problem using the

information already available.

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2. Autocratic II – the leader obtains data from subordinates and then

decides.

3. Consultative I – the leader explains the problem to individual

subordinates and obtains ideas from each before deciding.

4. Consultative II – the leader meets with group of subordinates to share

the problem and obtain inputs, and then decides.

5. Group II – the leader shares a problem with group and facilitates a

discussion of alternatives aiming to reach a group agreement on a
solution.

The normative decision model is based on the following assumptions:

1. The leader can accurately classify problems according to criteria

offered;

2. The leader is able and willing to adapt his or her leadership style to fit
the contingency condition he or she faces;

3. The leader is willing to use a rather complex model; and

4. The employees will accept the legitimacy of different styles being used
for different problems, as well as the validity of the leader’s classification
of the situation at hand.

The normative model will be useful if all these assumptions are ere valid.

The Muczyk- Reimann Model.

This model was developed by Jan P. Muczyk and Bernard C. Reimann,

and it suggests that “participation” behavior is concerned with the degree
to which subordinates are allowed to be involved in decision making. It is
separated from direction which is viewed as the degree of supervision
exercised in the execution of the tasks associated with carrying out
direction.

Muczyk and Reimann propose that leaders should be aloowed to adapt to

different situations. This paves the way for delegation which covers
decision making and execution.

To make delegation effective, Four leadership styles are considered:

1. The directive autocrat. The leader makes decisions unilaterally and

closely supervises the activities of subordinates.

2. The permissive autocrat. This leader makes decision unilaterally but

allows subordinates a great deal of latitude in execution.

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3. The directive democrat. This leader wants full participation but closely
supervises subordinate activity.

4. The permissive democrat. This leader allows high participation in

decision making and in execution.

VIII – REVIEW OF CONCEPT

Leadership is regarded as a very important ingredient of success in

organizational pursuits.

Leading and managing are two different matters.

Leadership may be formal or informal.

Without power, the leader is helpless.

Power may be derived from the leader’s position or from his personal
characteristics. Position power consists of legitimate power, reward
power, and coercive power. Personal power may be classified as expert
power and referent power.

There are various theories concerning leadership. They may be classified

as belonging to either trait theories, behavioral theories, or contingency
theories.

Trait theories consider leaders to possess common traits.

Behavioral theories proposed that specific behaviors differentiate leaders

from non-leaders.

Contingency theories assume that successful leadership occurs when the

leader’s style matches with the situation.

IX – SELF- EVALUATION

Answer the following questions below by providing substantial statement.

1. What is leadership?

2. Which theory of leadership do you think is most effective? Justify your

answer.

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3. How to become an effective leader?

__________________________________________________________

X – EVALUATION : Questionnaire is in separate sheet.

XI – REFERENCES :

Medina, R. G., (2011) Human Behavior in Organization, , Rex Book

Store, 856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St. Manila, Philippines

Mosura T. C., Mosura, A. R., Japiz, N. M. (2012) Human Behavior in

Organization, ASCENT Communication Solutions and Publishing
Enterprises Inc., 321-C Palali St. Barangka Ilaya, Mandaluyong City,
1551.

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Ess
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGYSURIGAO
STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 8

I - TITLE : PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND REWARDS

II – TOPICS :

1. What is Performance Management?

2. Staffing
3. Training and Career Planning & Development
4. Performance Appraisal
5. Rewards
III – TIME FAME : 3 HRS

IV – INTRODUCTION

How individuals and groups do their jobs is the main concern of those
managing organizations. It is easy to predict what will happen to organizations when
members are not performing effectively and efficiently. The task of management is to
make sure that every member is doing what is expected of them. How management
will go about doing this task is the aim of performance management.

V – OBJECTIVES : At the end of this module the students will be able to :

a. define performance management;

b. decide the right method to use in recruitment;
c. maximize the performance of the employees by using reward system.

VI – PRE-TEST

Answer the questions that follow in your own statement.

1. Which type of reward do you think is more effective? Why?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______
___________________________________________________________________
___

2. How would you be able to hire the right employee?

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___________________________________________________________________
__

3. Is it right to invest in an employee? How & Why”?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______

VII – LEARNING ACTIVITIES

TOPIC # 1

WHAT IS PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

Performance Management refers to the procedures and systems designed to

improve employee outputs and performance, often through the use of incentives
systems.

Apart from economic incentives, the other means used to improve employee
performance are:

1. goal setting
2. streamline organizational structure
3. better technology
4. new arrangements of working schedules high involvement of employees
better motivation of employees

An effective performance management process considers human resource (HR)

strategic planning as a basic requirement. HR strategic planning is the process of
providing capable and motivated people to carry out the organization’s mission and
strategy.

A key element of the HR strategic planning is the staffing function which implements
the provision of qualified people to the identified job openings.

TOPIC # 2

STAFFING

Effective performance begins with getting the right people, and providing them with
the right training and the right environment. To achieve this, the staffing function of
the organization must be well implemented.

Staffing refers to the HR planning, acquisition, and development aimed at providing

the talent necessary for the organization success.

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Staffing process

1. Job analysis
2. Recruitment
3. Selection
4. Socialization

Job Analysis

The process of staffing starts with an understanding of the positions or jobs for
which individuals are needed in the organization. Job analysis is a technical
procedure use to define the duties, responsibilities and accountabilities of a job.

The results of job analysis are very useful in:

1. Preparing job descriptions

2. Evaluating and classifying jobs
3. Training and career development
4. Performance appraisal
5. Other HR aspects

The Job description contains information concerned with the job. The information
include:

a. Duties and responsibilities

b. Equipment and materials used
c. Working conditions and hazards
d. Supervision
e. Work schedules
f. Standards of performance
g. Relationships to other jobs

To meet the job requirements specified in the job description, the job
specification is derived. In a typical job specification, requirements about the
following are indicated:

1. Education and experience;

2. Technical knowledge
3. Physical aptitudes and abilities
4. Interpersonal and communication skills
5. Analytical aptitudes and abilities
6. Creative abilities

Recruitment

After Job Analysis, the nest step in the staffing process is the drawing of
people to apply for the various positions identified. This step is called recruitment and
it may be defined as a human resource management practice designed to locate and
attract job applicants for particular position.

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Recruitment involves the following:

1. Advertisement of a position vacancy

2. Preliminary contact with potential job candidates
3. Preliminary screening to obtain a pool of candidates.

Two Types of Recruitment

1. Advertisement of a position vacancy

2. Preliminary contact with potential job candidates
3. Preliminary screening to obtain a pool of candidates

Internal Recruitment. It is a process for attracting job applicants from those currently
working with the firm.

The advantages of internal recruitment are:

1. It is good public relations

2. It builds morale
3. It encourages good individuals who are ambitious
4. It improves the probability of a good selection, since information on the
individual’s performance is readily available.
5. It is less costly than external recruitment
6. Those chosen internally already know the organization
7. When carefully planned, promoting from within can also act as a training
device for developing middle and top-level managers.

The disadvantages of internal recruitment consist of the following:

1. It can be dysfunctional to the organization to utilize inferior internal sources

only because they are there, when excellent candidates are available outside;
2. It may generate infighting among the rival candidates for promotion;
3. It may decrease the moral levels of those not selected;
4. It may promote inbreeding”.

Methods of Internal Recruitment

1. computerized career progression system;

2. supervisor recommendation;
3. Job posting; and
4. Career development system.

The computerized career progression system (CCPS) . This is where

the
date of prospective applicants is being stored making him accessible when
searched online.

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Supervisor recommendations. The supervisor is the first person who

knows
the person within the organization.

The advantages of this method are:

1. The supervisor is given the discretion in selecting the person who will report
to
him.
2. the supervisor is generally in a good position to know the capabilities of
potential candidates, especially those who already work for him and seeking
performance.

The disadvantage of this method are:

1. The supervisor’s recommendation is usually very subjective, and is thus

acceptable to bias and possible discrimination.

Job Posting. This is a method of internal recruitment in which a job vacancy

notice is posted and all qualified and all faculty may bid.

The advantages of Job posting

1. it enhances the probability of the firms most qualified employees will be

considered the job;
2. it gives employees an to become more opportunity to become more
responsible for their own career development;
3. it enables to leave a “bad”work situation. In the same light, it encourages their
present supervisors to manage more effectively to discourage employees from
leaving the company.

The disadvantages of this method

1. This method takes time in filling vacant positions;

2. The system may prevent supervisors from hiring the individuals they prefer;
3. Some employees may move from one job to another without any clear
direction.
4. Employees who did not get the job may become alienated from the
organization.

Career development system. The organization places fast track or high potential
employees on a career path where they are groomed for certain target jobs.

Advantages

1. the two performers are more likely to remain with the organization.

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2. it helps ensure that someone is always ready to fill a position when it becomes
vacant.

Disadvantages

1. An employee who is not selected even if he is good may become

disenchanted and leave the organization.
2. the selected employee may become frustrated if the expected promotion does
not materialize because the targeted position never becomes vacant.

External Recruitment. It is a process of attracting job applicants from outside the

organization.

Methods of External Recruitment:

1. Employee referrals;
2. applicant- initiated recruitment;
3. help-wanted advertisements;
4. Private employment agencies and executive search firms;
5. Campus recruitment.

Employee referrals is a method or recruitment in which organizations ask their

employees to solicit applications from qualified friends and associate.
Advantages:

1. Applicants referred by employees tend to perform better and remain with the
organization longer than applicants recruited by other means.
2. Employees tend to be good recruiters because they know a lot about the job being
filled and the individuals.
3. Employees make good recruiters because believing their reputation is on the line,
they are encouraged to refer only the highest qualified applicants.

Disadvantage:

Employees will tend to recruit only those they know.

Applicant-initiated recruitment is a method of external recruitment in which an

organization accepts unsolicited applications.

Advantages:

1. it is both efficient and low cost;

2. the candidates are likely to be highly motivated. Since they have taken the time to
learn about the organization.

Disadvantages:

1. concerns on timing. When applications and resumes remain ön file” for some time,
applicant may no longer be available when they are needed.

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Help-wanted advertisements. This a method of external recruitment in which an

organization places an advertisement for the position in the appropriate media such
as newspaper, magazine, etc.

Private employment agencies and executive search firms . the hiring organization
initiates the recruitment process by contacting the appropriate agency or firm
informing it of the qualifications needed for the job question.

Campus recruitment. Recruiting organization visit other college or firms to recruit

individuals for positions requiring a certain degree.

Selection

This is the next step to recruitment. The next step in the staffing process is
selection. This involves assessing and choosing among job candidates. The
selection process involves the following steps:

1. completion of application form;

2. conducting an interview;
3. competing any necessary tests;
4. background investigation;
5. physical and medical examination; and
6. a decision to hire or not.

Socialization

The final step in the staffing process. Orientation as part of socialization of

new employee will be introduced to let him feel that he now belongs to the new
organization.

Other concerns about socialization includes:

Department functions;
job duties and responsibilities;
policies;
rules;
procedures; and
regulations;

TOPIC # 3

TRAINING AND CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

The organization needs to undertake measures to ensure that the knowledge,

skills, and abilities of employees are at par with the requirements of their respective
jobs.

1. Training

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2. Career planning and Development

The organization needs to invest training of its employees through training. Training
is necessary to employees esp. those who need it so that he will be able to perform
at an optimal level.

Trainings may be:

1. on the job training, and

2. off the job training.

Common forms of on the job training:

1. internship
2. apprenticeships
3. job rotation.

Career as the pattern of work-related experiences that span the course of a person’s
life.

Career stages are:

1. The establishment stage. In this stage the employees seeks growth and increased
responsibility through the continued development and utilization of his skills.

2. Maintenance stage. The employee may experience continued growth of

performance and accomplishments, or encountered career stability.

3. Career plateau is a situation in which, for either organizational or personal reason,

the probability of moving up the career ladder is low.

Types of career plateau

1. Structural plateau – which marks the end of promotions.

2. Content plateau – which occurs when a person has learned a job too well and is
bored with day-to-day activities;
3. Life plateau – which occurs when an employee experiences a loss of identity and
self-esteem when there is no longer success in his work area.

The retirement stage. Formal preparation for retirement is made.

TOPIC # 3

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal is a key aspect of performance management. It may be

defined as the process of evaluating the performance of employees, sharing that
information with them and searching ways to improve performance.

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Functions of Performance Appraisal

1. to give employees feedback on performance;

2. to identify the employee’s developmental needs;
3. to make promotion and reward decisions;
4. to make demotion and termination decisions; and
5. to develop information about the organization’s selection and placement decisions.

Cafeteria for Performance Appraisal

1. individual task outcomes;

2. behaviors; and
3. traits.

Methods of Performance Appraisal

1. absolute standards;
2. relative standards; and
3. objectives.

TOPIC #4

REWARDS

Types of Organizational incentives

1. intrinsic or extrinsic
2. financial or non-financial
3. performance-based or membership-based

Intrinsic rewards are those that the worker receives from the job itself, such as pride
in one’s work, a feeling of accomplishment, or being part of a team.

Extrinsic rewards are those that the workers get from the employer usually money,
promotion, or benefits.

Financial rewards. Received by the worker in a form of wages or salary, bonuses,

profit sharing, etc.

Nonfinancial rewards are those given using performance as basis.

Membership-based rewards refer to those that are given to all em[loyees regardless
of performance.

For ex.
Cost of leaving allowance increase;
Benefits;
Salary increase;
Seniority, etc.

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VIII – SELF-EVALUATION

Answer the following questions using your own statement:

1. How would you encourage the employees to perform at their optimum level?

2. How important is reward to you?

3. Which method or recruitment do you think is ideal to employ? Why?

IX – REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

It is necessary for the organization to find effective ways to improve the performance
of its employees.

Performance management and rewards are two aspects of human resource

management that has some bearing on organizational behavior.

The relevant activities of performance management are staffing, training, and career
planning and development, and performance appraisal.

Staffing consists of job analysis, recruitment, selection and socialization.

Performance appraisal is the process of evaluating the performance of employees,

sharing that information with them, and searching for ways to improve their
performance.

Rewards maybe classified as either extrinsic or intrinsic, financial or non-financial,

and either performance-based or membership-based.

X – EVALUATION. ( IN ANOTHER SHET)

XI – REFERENCES:

Medina, R. G., (2011) Human Behavior in Organization, , Rex Book

Store, 856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St. Manila, Philippines

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