STEEL

Steel – A Construction Material:

Steel is the most commonly used structural metal, due to its various properties like great strength, good
ductility and high strength, allowing easy fabrication. Due to its high strength members of light sections can
be used to carry a heavy load, which means there is considerable reduction in dead load.
It is due to this reason, steel becomes an affordable material for making very long span structures like
auditoriums, sport halls etc. Due to their stiffness, steel members deflect to very small extents often not
needing special consideration. Steel allows itself to be worked easily in the fabricating shop in various ways
like, drilling, sawing, flame cutting etc.

It allows joining easily by welding. Steel is also comparatively cheaper to other metals. For instance,
Aluminium may cost 3 to 4 times more than the usual grades of steel. Steel allows easy erections and may not
need form work. Considerable part of the steel structure can be prefabricated accurately in the workshop,
away from the construction site.

Due to its relatively lower weight, steel allows making large span structures. It is worthy to note that
construction is fast with steel. For example, constructing a bridge over a busy road or railway line can be done
in the shortest duration of time, considerably minimizing the period of obstruction. Steel also allows any later
modifications like extensions easily.

The 4 Main Types of Steel

1. Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel contains only 2% carbon or less by weight, and is a strong and durable material. It is often used
in construction or industrial projects because it has high tensile strength. Other common products are kitchen
knives, springs, bolts.

2. Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is composed of iron and chromium and other materials, which makes it very durable and
resistant to weather conditions. Stainless steel is often used on surgical tools, utensils and appliances because
it does not stain or discolour the surface.

3. Alloy Steel
Alloy steel is a type of steel that contains a combination of different elements, such as vanadium, chromium
and nickel, to name a few. Alloy steel is stronger than regular steel because these alloying elements increase
the machinability and corrosion resistance of the material. It is commonly used to manufacture pipes, and
heating elements in appliances like pots and pans and toasters.

4. Tool Steel
Tool steel is often made from around 75% scrap and has carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%. It is
typically hardened by heat treatment to increase its heat-resistance, toughness, and strength. As its name
implies, it is used for manufacturing machinery.

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Production of Steel:
The main constituent of structural steel is iron. Iron is available on the earth’s surface in combination with
other elements, in the form of ores. The deposits of iron ore are distinguished by the quantity of metallic iron
in combination with other elements contained. The commonly occurring ores are oxides of iron combined
with earthy materials and chemically adulterated with sulphur, phosphorous etc.
There are three commercial forms of iron products, viz., wrought iron, steel and cast iron based on the amount
of carbon contained (table 1.1).

Steel in modern times is made from the raw material on iron produced by a blast furnace. Iron ore is fed into
the blast furnace with coke and limestone. The temperature is raised by a powerful blast of air so as to melt
the iron which is run off. The iron obtained at this stage has high carbon content.

Steel is obtained by removing most of the carbon content by blowing oxygen through molten iron. The steel
so made is subjected to a process of rolling to bring it to the required shape. The reheating along with the
mechanical working it is subjected to, in the process of rolling; the tensile strength of steel gets increased.

In the generally adopted process, the steel is squeezed between a pair of rotating cylinders called rolls. By this
process, the original ingots are changed to the required shapes like plates, bars, wires or structural sections.

Properties of Structural Steel:

Certain properties are very relevant and are of great consideration for a structural designer. It is first worthy to
study the behaviour of steel under the influence of a load by examining the stress-strain relation for a low
carbon mild steel specimen shown in Fig. 1.1.

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Fig. 1.2 shows a portion of the stress-stain diagram to a magnified scale. Studying these diagrams it is worthy
to note certain important characteristics of mild steel.

Steel exhibits the property of elasticity till it reaches a well-defined yield point. If the loading is removed
while the stress is within the yield point, the deformation vanishes completely and the material reverts to its
original unstressed dimensions.

In reality a linear relation between stress and strain is exhibited at stresses below a stress called the
proportional limit which is difficult to determine as the deviation from this state to the yield state is within a
very close range. In the range of linear relation between the stress and strain, the slope of the stress-strain
diagram is the modulus of elasticity of the material. Its value is taken as 2.05 × 10 5 N/mm2 irrespective of the
type of steel.

Tensile Strength:
The stress applied to cause failure of the material is considerably greater than the yield stress. This can be seen
in Fig. 1.2.

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Ductility:
Steel has this important property to undergo substantial deformation without fracture. At the stage of failure,
the strain may be 0.25 for mild steel, whereas this strain at failure will be less in the case of high carbon steels.
It may also be noted that the range of elastic strain is just a small part of the total strain occurring as the
material reaches the fracture stage.

To study the behaviour of steel stressed beyond the elastic unit, it is convenient to simplify the stress- strain
curve to an elastic-plastic stress-strain diagram as shown in Fig. 1.3. Since this simplification discards the
region of strain hardening the modified stress-strain diagram is a conservative approximation to the actual
strength of the material.

In addition to the mechanical properties mentioned above it is also necessary to be aware of the susceptibility
of steel to certain other effects.

Fire Protection for Steel:

In the earlier days, there was a belief that uncased iron was an absolutely fire proof element. Later it was
found by actual observations that though iron is inflammable, it gets severely distorted and becomes weak and
may become unfit.

Fig. 1.4 shows how strength is affected by temperature. One of the methods of fire protection of steel is by
providing the steel encased in concrete or brick work. Though concrete may be taken to protect against fire its
use in this way has a limitation. A great disadvantage is the considerable increase in dead load by about 10%
and the additional labour of placing the concrete.

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It may also result in needing heavier foundation. More over the concrete casing can be considered for beams
and columns and cannot be provided for roof trusses, lattice girders and space frames. As an improvement
light weight encasing materials are being used these days. In this way besides reducing the dead load, these
encasing materials are easy and quick to be applied without needing form work. These are available in the
form of dry sheets.

Vermiculite, Gypsum and Perlite are the main lightweight materials used. Either they are available in the form
of sheets or they are available in planter form. A modern technic in fire protection is to provide hollow
columns through which cold water can be circulated. Yet another method is to use a special paint which
produces froth on getting heated forming a protective layer, protecting the steel inside. While planning, the
columns may be located far from the sources of heat.

Fatigue Effect in Steel Design:

Pulsating loads at high frequency cause extreme variations in stresses. They may also cause stress reversals.
Such sudden long range load variations and stress reversals reduce the strength of steel members over a period
of time or over a number of cycles.

A failure due to this cause is called a fatigue failure. This is of great importance at places of stress
concentrations. Observations have revealed that fatigue failure usually gets initiated from a very small crack
produced as a consequence of very high stress at that point.

Fatigue effect is an important consideration in the design of tension members of bridge trusses. Connection of
members at joints should be made with High Strength Friction Grip bolts (HSFG bolts). However in the
normal building constructions fatigue effect will not be of serious concern.

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Brittle Fracture in Steel:
Steel being a ductile material can be subjected to extension by about one fifth of its original length to reach a
failure state. But in some exceptional cases, it can fail suddenly almost with no extension in a brittle fashion.

The causes of such brittle fracture could be the following:

(i) Steel is ductile at a higher temperature but brittle below a critical temperature.
(ii) A zone of stress concentration is likely to develop a brittle fracture.

Corrosion Protection of Steel:

Unprotected steel readily rusts or corrodes. Smoke, soot, sea water, acidic or alkaline vapours and aggressive
environments hasten the process of corrosion. The usual protective treatment against corrosion is by covering
the exposed steel with paint or a metallic coating or with a sheating with plastic coat.

Another technic is by providing a metal coating like galvanising or zinc spraying. Electroplating can be done
for small items like fasteners. Metal spraying using aluminium or zinc may be done. Whatever treatment is
given against corrosion, it is very important that the surface to be treated must be cleaned thoroughly. For
structural steel work, good surface cleaning may be achieved by blast cleaning. In this process, very small
abrasive iron particles are directed to the surface using compressed air.

Structural Steel Products:

The hot steel ingots can be shaped to various standard shapes to be used as structural components, by passing
them through rolling mills. Fig.1.6 shows the various structural sections that are practically used.

(i) l-Sections:
I-Sections are used as beams and columns. The shape of the I-Section is best suited to resist bending moment
and shearing force. In an I-Section about 80% of the bending moment is resisted by the flanges and the rest of
the bending moment is resisted by the web.

Similarly, about 95% of the shear force is resisted by the web and the rest of the shear force is resisted by the
flanges. Sometimes l-Sections with cover-plates are used to resist large bending moments.

The standard I-Sections are classified as follows:

(a) Indian Standard Joist Beams (ISJB).
(b) Indian Standard Light Beams (ISLB).
(c) Indian Standard Medium Beams (ISMB).
(d) Indian Standard Wide Beams (ISWB).
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(e) Indian Standard Heavy Beams (ISHB).

I-Sections in the categories, ISJB, ISLB and ISMB are generally used as beams. ISJB sections are meant to
resist bending about x-x axis only. ISLB and ISMB sections are meant to resist bending about x-x axis and to
some extent about y-y axis. Two I-Sections in combination may be used for a column. ISWB and ISHB
sections are used for columns.

(ii) Channels:
Channels are used as beams and columns. Because of its shape, a channel member affords connection of an
angle to its web. Built-up channels are very convenient for columns. Double channel members are often used
for bridge truss members.

Channels are classified into the following categories:

(a) Indian Standard Joist Channels (ISJC).
(b) Indian Standard Light Channels (ISLC).
(c) Indian Standard Medium Channels (ISMC).

(iii) Angles:
Angles are available as equal angles and unequal angles. The legs of an equal angle are equal in length.
Angles have great applications in the fabrications. Angles may be used as connecting elements to connect
structural elements.

They are also used as tension and compression members of trusses. They are used in combination with plates
to form a plate girder. When unequal angles are used in combination for a compression or a tension member,
the outstanding legs are the shorter legs generally.

The area of a leg of an angle = [Length of the leg – t/2] t, where t = Thickness of the angle.

(iv) T-Sections:
T-Sections have great applications in furniture fabrication. These sections are good to resist biaxial bending.
They are also used as purtins.

These are classified into the following categories:

(a) Indian Standard Normal T-bars (ISNT).
(b) Indian Standard Long legged T-bars (ISST).
(c) Indian Standard Wide T-bars (ISWT).
(d) Indian Standard Light T-bars (ISLT).

(v) Plates:
Plates and strips can be made into hollow sections like, square, rectangle and circle by hot rolling (Fig. 1.7).
Thin plates and strips can be made into a wide range of cold rolled sections (Fig. 1.8).

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(vi) Castellate Beams:
A technic in fabrication is a method of increasing the depth of steel beams by castellating (Fig. 1.9). A line in
zig-zag fashion is cut along the web of an I-Section using an automatic flame cutting machine. The two halves
formed are rearranged so that the teeth of the parts match up and are welded.

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A further expansion can be achieved by interesting plates between the teeth (Fig. 1.10).

(vii) Compound Sections:

Compound sections are made in many ways mentioned below:

(a) A rolled steel section can be strengthened by welding on its cover plates (Fig. 1.11).

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(b) Two different rolled sections can be combined (Example: Crane girder) the two components resist loads in
separate directions (Fig. 1.12).

(c) Two steel sections can be connected with patterns or lacing plates to form a strong member acting as a
single unit (Fig. 1.13).

(d) Built-up sections made by welding plates. Built-up sections forming I, H and box members can be made
by welding plates. These members are called plate girders (Fig. 1.14). These members are meant to carry
heavy loads and for long spans.
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(viii) Structural Steel Tubes:
Structural Steel tubes are used for making trusses, domes and as scaffolds. These tubes are available in sizes
ranging from 15 mm internal diameter to 150 mm internal diameter. For the same internal diameter three
different sizes with different thicknesses are available. Large steel tubes can be used as columns.

(ix) Other Steel Sections:

Steel bars of square sections are made in various sizes ranging from 5 mm side up to 200 mm side. These are
called ISSQ bars.

Solid circular bars (ISRO bars) are available of varying sizes ranging from 5 mm to 200 mm. These round
bars are used as reinforcements in R.C.C. structures, in making trusses and sheds.

Steel of high strength called high tensile steel rods are used in prestressed concrete members.

Steel rails are used in railways and as crane rails.

Corrugated G.I. sheets are used as roofs of workshops, godowns and sheds.

Sectional Properties of Structural Steel Sections:

The Sectional Properties of a Structural Steel Sections are the Following:

(i) The exact dimensions of the section.
(ii) Position of the centroid for a section asymmetrical about one or both axes.
(iii) Area of cross section.
(iv) Moments of inertia about various axes.
(v) Radii of gyration about various axes.
(vi) Elastic and Plastic moduli of the section about principal axes.

The sectional properties of rolled steel standard sections are given in ISI structural Engineers’ Hand Book by
Bureau of Indian Standards.
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The properties of compound and built-up sections should be calculated from first principles.

The properties of the symmetrical built-up section shown in Fig. 1.15 are as follows:

Area, A = 2 BT + dt

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For unsymmetrical sections such as those shown in Fig. 1.16, the elastic and plastic properties should be
calculated from first principles.

Structural Idealization of Steel:

After a decision has been taken to construct a steel structure it is necessary to select a suitable structural
system. There are some factors which influence in the choice of such system.

These are briefly given below:

(i) Magnitudes of Spans Involved:

In the case of long spans or the need for large clear floor area special considerations are necessary.

(ii) Vertical Loads Liable to Act:

Due consideration must be given to presence of heavy concentrated loads on floors or the need to
accommodate cranes.

(iii) Lateral or Horizontal Loads:

A planning has to be done to decide the way the horizontal loads, say wind loads will be resisted. This can be
done by providing a rigid frame with rigid joints or by providing suitable bracings which act with the framing,
or by providing a separate independent bracing system like shear walls. This planning has its relevance in tall
structures.

(iv) Various Services to Be Provided:

Services such as water electricity gas etc. are important services to be provided. These are generally
accommodated under the floors. When such services are required to a large extent as in hospitals, it is usual to
provide special type of flooring allowing easy installation of pipe work, ducting etc.

(v) Site Conditions:

Ground conditions at the site influence the type of foundation to be provided, like ordinary or raft or piled etc.
Besides the above it is also necessary to decide the manner in which the structure is to be erected. It is also
necessary to decide whether the steel work should be kept visible as in the case of exhibition halls. The way
the designer has to decide to satisfy the various requirements like those mentioned above (some of which are
likely to conflict with each other) becomes a tough and may sometimes be an ignored aspect of structural
design.
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Observation of past satisfactory schemes, good structural judgement, discussions with others in the profession
as well as with the clients will go a long way towards a satisfactory structural arrangement.

Structures we mostly handle come in any of the categories listed in the table 1.2 below:

Of these the first category viz.; bearing wall construction involves steel beams forming the roofs and floors
bearing directly on masonry walls. This is limited to low-rise lightly loaded buildings.

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Fig. 1.19 shows a steel frame work of beams and columns which is commonly seen nowadays. This type of
construction can be done for small simple low rise as well as highly complicated huge multi-storey structures.
Based on the manner, the beam-column joints are made these systems may be simple constructions or
continuous constructions.

In the case of simple constructions the beams are assumed to be free to rotate relative to the columns and may
therefore be considered as simply supported. Any moment transmitted to the column due to the eccentricity of
the beam column reaction may be considered.

These simple connections can be satisfactorily done at the site by bolting. Continuous constructions or also
called rigid frames possess rigidity in the beam-column connection so that the angle between the beam and
column is maintained undisturbed, when the structure is loaded. These rigid connections involve additional
fabrications which may involve higher cost of erection, but due to the advantage of rigidity attained, the
member sizes required may be minimized.

In the case of long span constructions the beams for roofs and floors are of very long spans and as such the
normal rolled sections will not be sufficient and instead deep built up beams or plate girders have to be
provided. To cover very large areas space frames and arches are also used.

In the case of tall structures say structures of 20 storeys or more, the wind load effect becomes an important
dominant consideration. Some effective arrangement has to be provided for adequate stiffness for the
structure. Fig. 1.20 shows two convenient mechanisms to provide the stiffnesses required. The frame can be
braced with diagonal members or by in built walls or by rigid frame constructions.

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Structural Elements of Steel Framed Building:
A steel frame building consists of a skeletal frame which supports all the loads to which the building is
subjected.

The various elements of a steel framed building are the following:

(i) Beams and Girders:

These support vertical loads and are therefore subjected to bending moments and shear forces.

(ii) Ties:
These are members subjected to axial tension.

(iii) Struts, Columns and Stanchions:

These are members subjected to compressive loads. They may in addition be subjected to bending moments
also.

(iv) Trusses and Lattice Girders:

These are framed members consisting of compression and tension members. These framed units carry lateral
loads.

(v) Purlins:
These are members meant to support roof sheeting.

(vi) Bracings:
These are diagonal ties and struts connected to columns and roof trusses. They are meant to support wind
loads. They provide stability to the building.

(vii) Joints:
Joints are provided to connect members.
Example:
Truss joints, Joints connecting beams and columns.
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(viii) Bases:
Bases are meant to transmit loads from column to foundation.

Structural Design of Steel Framed Building:

Steel structures may be designed based on the following three theories:

A building design is arrived at with the participation of a multi-disciplined team of which the architect and the
structural engineer have their major role. It is the architect who makes the plans for the building to suit the
needs of the client, while it is the structural engineer’s role in examining a number of alternative structural
arrangements and to work out preliminary designs so that an economical and satisfactory arrangement is
selected.

Once a structural arrangement is selected, the process of structural design takes the following course:

(i) Load Analysis.

(ii) Analysis of frames, trusses, girders, columns, floor system, connections.

(iii) Design of all the structural elements from the above data.

(iv) Arriving at the actual structural arrangement with detailed structural drawings.

Tests on steel

It is common knowledge that a structure needs to be inspected and certain tests on steel structure are needed to
be performed in order to ensure its safety. This is true to all vertical and horizontal projects which
include steel structures. And therefore you need the seven (7) tests on the steel structure.

The members of the steel structure are composed of structural steel such as wide flange or I-Beams, W-
Shapes, C-Channel, Purlins, Angle, etc.

Checking a steel structure through various methods of welding tests is necessary. Although merely inspecting
or visually evaluating the weldment will do the job, it is still important to try other methods.

1. Bend testing on shear stud

This is a simple bend test which is used for checking a particular welding data. In this test, the weld is
subjected to bending in a way that the area for examination is the tension zone. A bending moment of 60° or
30° is applied to a stressed area below its elastic limit. This test evaluates the ductility, brittleness, and
soundness of welds.

2. Bolt tightening or torque test (one of the important tests on steel structure)
Torque refers to the angular force that is needed for rotating something. It creates tension for threaded
fasteners like bolt and nut. This kind of test is also known as fastener testing. Although high strength bolts are
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used as connectors in steel structures, it is still important these are tested to ensure that it can carry a particular
load. There is no standard torque value for tensioning bolts but some engineers developed their own formulas
which serve as their rule-of-thumb for the torque test.

3. Magnetic particle inspection test for welding (this is also one of the common tests on steel structure)

This welding test is a non-destructive technique (NDT) that will help detect the defects and discontinuities on
the surface of a ferromagnetic metal like iron and steel. This is primarily used to test pipelines as well as other
metal machinery components in order to avoid accidents and failures. In this test, the metal object is
magnetized surrounding it with an invisible magnetic field. The magnetic particle testing will make it easier to
identify defects through a disruption.

4. Ultrasonic testing for welding

This one is based on the ability of high-frequency oscillations, which is about 20,000 Hz. It will propagate
into the metal and it will be reflected from the voids, surface scratches, and other discontinuities. The
diagnostic wave enters into the material. Graphical and parametric readings will show the nature of the defect
that is recognized by the test.

5. Visual test for welding (this is one of the initial tests on steel structure)
Of all the welding tests, visual inspection is one of the simplest tests on steel structure. But it is also the most
underrated and underestimated because you do not need to use any equipment. Because of that, it is
inexpensive and quick to perform. This non-destructive testing (NDT) is a method used to inspect completed
welds aiming to avoid any problems in welding. The inspection can be done before, during and after the
welding process.

6. Dye penetrant
This one is also a non-destructive testing technique. In this test, low viscosity liquids will be penetrated in the
surface openings. After penetration, the liquid will be extracted again through of some developers. Since it
used liquids, it is also called as liquid penetrant inspection (LPI). This method is used to locate surface-
breaking flaws and discontinuities like cracks, laps, porosity, and seams. This can be applied to ferrous, non-
ferrous, and all non-porous materials.

7. Radiographic

This test makes use of X-rays from an X-ray tube or gamma rays from a radioactive isotope. Radiation, which
penetrates the material, is passed through a solid object that results in an image of the object’s internal
structure. This will then be reflected in the film similar to what we can see in medical X-rays. Cracks and low-
density areas like slag will be shown as dark outlines in the film while high-density areas like tungsten are
light areas. Discontinuities are determined by the shape and variation of density in the film.

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Steel Corrosion and its prevention

What Is Corrosion

Corrosion is a natural event that causes the weakening of a material, usually a metal, or its characteristics due
to reactions with the environment.

Some environments are more suitable for the chemical combination of metals with elements to create
compounds and come back to their low energy levels.

Corrosion is a serious condition of the substance that may produce massive damage to the product, including
bridges, buildings, water systems, and home appliances, unless suitable prevention and control techniques are
applied.

The Chemical Reaction In Corrosion

A substance disintegrates into atoms because of the chemical reactions with the water and oxygen in the
environment, resulting into an electron loss of the material.

If an electrical circuit is completed, the metal atoms become positively charged ions, causing pitting or the
development of a crack.

The rate of pitting corrosion is greater in portions where welding operations have caused micro structural
transformations. Localized corrosion may initiate fatigue that can intensify by the action with corrosive agents
like seawater.

In an electrochemical corrosion, the strength of iron is reduced due to the oxidation of its atoms that is called
rusting, by which oxides are formed.

Rusting Of Iron

The most significant category of corrosion is the rusting of iron, which produces iron oxides due to the
reaction of iron with oxygen in an environment of humid air or water.

Metal corrosion will also occur by a chemical reaction with gaseous substances like acid vapors, ammonia
gas, and gases containing sulpher.

Corrosion particularly signifies the process that is related to the weakening or degradation of the metal parts,
and the processes are generally electrochemical in nature. Rust formed is brittle and prominent as a reddish
crust on the exposed fresh iron surface.

Formation of rust can be minimized by the exclusion of the air and water from the surface of the iron by the
application of paint, oil, grease, or a shielding coat of another metal such as chromium, zinc, or nickel.

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Stainless steels do not corrode because of the addition of protective coatings of nickel or chromium that form
a rigid coating to withstand additional attack.

Rust Prevention By Galvanization

Rust prevention is important to avoid damage to expensive equipment and appliances. Several techniques are
being employed for this purpose.

Galvanization is a metallurgical process in which a zinc coating is applied on steel or iron to avoid rust, since
the corrosion resistance of zinc is superior to those of steel and iron.

Coatings of zinc achieve corrosion prevention of the protected metal by the formation of a physical
obstruction, and by functioning as an anode if this obstruction is destroyed.

On exposure of zinc to the atmosphere, zinc oxide is formed by the reaction of zinc with oxygen that further
reacts with molecules of water in the air to form zinc hydroxide.

Reaction of zinc hydroxide with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere creates a thin and insoluble layer of zinc
carbonate that prevents further corrosion. Preservation of iron and steel by the process of galvanization is
preferred because it is economical and simple in application.

What is Electroplating

Electroplating is another method through which iron or steel can be protected and prevented from rusting and
corroding. Here, the metal to be protected is coated by a thin layer of another metal having non-rusting
properties by reducing it.

Normally, the metals involved form the electrodes, which are processed inside an electrolyte by passing
electric current (DC) across the electrodes, through the electrolyte.

In this process the electrode which is connected to the negative of the supply gradually gets covered with the
metal of the electrode connected to the positive of the electric supply which slowly disintegrates or reduces
and becomes attached over the other electrode.

The electrode connected to the negative is the one which is being electroplated for the required protections.

The above process can be explained and witnessed through a small experiment.

You will need the following materials for the experiment:

 One iron nail

 One copper rod
 Water
 Copper sulphate crystals
 A 9 Volt Battery

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Procedure:

Take a vessel and fill it with water, add a teaspoon full of copper sulphate crystals in the water and mix it
thoroughly.

Copper sulphate not only helps to enhance electricity conduction through water, but also directly participates
in the process by extracting copper from the copper rod and attaching it over the exterior of the nail.

Arrange the nail and the copper rod such that some part of them are immersed in the solution and are placed
rigidly and vertically, as shown in the diagram.

Make sure that the metals do not touch each other.

Obviously, here the iron nail is the component we want to electroplate or cover with some kind of layer. So
the nail has to become the cathode terminal and the copper rod can be selected as the anode terminal.

Connect them appropriately to the battery poles, as explained above.

The electroplating process will be instantly initiated and after a few hours you should be able to find the
dipped portion nail completely covered with copper deposits, received from the copper rod which in the
course can be seen to have become much thinner (eroded) over the immersed area.

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