COURSE CODE: MIT 816

COURSE TITLE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

COURSE DEVELOPER: USMAN-HAMZA .FATIMA.ENEHEZEI (Ph.D)
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE,
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, KWARA STATE

INTRODUCTION
MIT 816 is on Research Methodology which is the study of research methods. The course
content is on Research types, originality in research, building methodology, literature review,
research objectives, methods and techniques . It is a three [23 credit unit course of 14 study
units.

Course Aim
(i) Introduce Overview of Research
(ii) Understand the Design of Research
(iii) Describe Research Methodology

Course Objectives

Certain objectives have been set out to ensure that the course achieves its aims. By the end of
this course you should be able to:

Understand Research
Explain the types and originality of Reasearch
Describe the strategies of choosing Research
Understand Research Designs
Understand Literature Review
Build Methodology
Write a Research Proposal
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Unit 1 What is Research?

Unit 2 Characteristics of Research

Unit 3 Types of Research

Unit 1 What is Research?

Research may be broadly described as any systematic endeavors or striving towards the
understanding, on perceiving certain complex situational problem of more than immediate
personal concern and stated in a problematic form.

Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed
phenomenon. To research is to purposely and methodically search for new knowledge and
practical solutions in the form of answers to questions formulated beforehand. Research is also
defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of data
or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore. Usually Research consists of:

Asking a question that nobody has asked before;

 Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and

 Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience

Let us start with what research is NOT. Research is not:

Mere information gathering

Mere transformation of facts from one location to another

Merely rummaging information and A catch word used to get information.

Research is a process through which we attempt to achieve systematically, and with the support
of data, the answer to a question, the resolution of a problem, or a greater understanding of a
phenomenon

Research originates with a question or problem: Everywhere around us is filled with many
answered questions and unresolved problems. When we look around, we observe things that
make us wonder and to ask questions. These questions may start to spark igniting chains of
reactions which terminate in the research process. An inquisitive mind is the beginning of
research.

Research requires a clear articulation of a goal: It is critical to have a clear and unambiguous
statement of the problem. This statement gives you an exercise in intellectual honesty. The
ultimate goals of the research should be given in a grammatically complete sentence which is
precise and clear.

Research requires a specific plan of procedure: You should not hope that the data necessary to
solve the problem would somehow fortuitously come up. You have to have rather a planned
attack, a search – and – discover mission explicitly planned or designed in advance. Research
usually divides the principal problem into more manageable subproblems: A whole is made up of
parts. This is a natural law universally accepted. So when you think about your principal goal in
research, try to observe this goal precept. Research is guided by specific research questions,
problems or hypothesis: These guide you and direct you on what to do and how to do it in order
to arrive at the solution to the problem.

Research accepts certain critical assumptions: These must be self-evident truths. These
assumptions must be valid in order to make the research to proceed. You must let others know
what you assume with respect to your study.

Research requires the collection and interpretation of data: You need to collect appropriate data,
organize them in a meaningful way so that they can be analyzed and interpreted. Research is
cyclical or helical: The process of research follows a cycle. It begins simply and follows logical
developmental steps. Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or
theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Now let us look at the
characteristics of research to classify this definition.

Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be

helpful in predicting future occurrences.

Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. Research demands

accurate observation and description.

Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using existing data
for a new purpose.

Research is often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
Research requires expertise.

Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.

Research involves the quest for answers to unresolved problems.

Research is carefully recorded and reported.

Research requires courage sometimes.

Unit 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH.

The major characteristics of any research are; Objectivity, precision, design and verifiability.

Objectivity. In an ideal situation, a research is beyond the subjective bias of the researcher. As a
researcher, you have to make deliberate efforts to eliminate all personal preferences. You should
resist the temptation to seek only such data which support your hypotheses or your 9line of
taught. In a scientific research, emphasis is on testing the hypothesis not to prove it. You have to
willingly suspend your personal judgment in order to allow the data and logic to lead
independently to a sound conclusion. If you want to achieve objectivity in your investigation,
you have to use standardized research instruments, choose appropriate research design and
analytical tools and also ensure the dependability of data.

Precision When you conduct a good research and write the report but your readers do not
understand what you have done, you may have succeeded in wasting your time and efforts.
Every research should use a technical language in order to convey the exact meaning to the
readers. Such research languages include validity, reliability, random sampling variables etc. The
most precise expression in quantitative research is the mathematical equation or statistical
finding which explains or represents the truth. But in qualitative research, precision is achieved
through words rather than numbers. So you have to use a very precise language to describe your
study accurately. This is done so that the study can be replicated or the results correctly used.

Design If you want to have a good research, you must have a very good and systematic design.
This implies that every scientific inquiry will generally undergo such steps as: - Definition of the
problem Statement of the hypothesis Collection and analysis of data Testing and confirmation or
rejection of hypothesis. Reporting of the results. Any research, which has no orderly design,
cannot be replicated for verification.

Verifiability When you conduct a research, you write your report. This presents the research
design and the findings to the professional community. From this point other researchers and
scholars will study the report, analyze it in order to confirm or reject the outcomes. This tells you
that research is a social enterprise. Its information is open for public scrutiny. Verification is
related to objectivity and precision. It is only through further investigation or replication of the
study can the results of any study be confirmed, revised or rejected. It is also through this process
that a body of new knowledge is developed and new questions identified. Verifiability can be
achieved through two different approaches. Analyzing the same data on the same sample through
alternative analytical tools or statistical methods. Replicating the study on a different sample.

Unit 3 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research in general can be classified in many different ways. If we want to classify research
based on its goal or objective, then we think of two major types. These are fundamental or basic
research and applied research.

Fundamental Research: The main purpose of these types of research is to obtain empirical data
which can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate a theory. It is not actually directed in design
or purpose towards the solution of practical problems. The main aim is to expand the frontiers of
knowledge without the intention of having practical applications. However, the results may be
applied eventually to practical problems that have social values. Let us use hotel management as
an example. You will see that all the advances made in this area are dependent upon basic
researches in foods and nutrition, catering and hospitalities. In the same way, the progress made
in business administration practices has been related to progress in the discovery of economics
theories, administrative theories and management theories. But you have to bear in mind that the
primary concern of basic research is to create knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge. Its
design is not in any way hampered by considerations of special usefulness of the findings.

Applied Research: Unlike basic research, this type is directed towards the solution to an
immediate, specific and practical problem. It is the type of research which you can conduct in
relation to actual problems and under the conditions in which they are found in practice. You can
use the applied research to solve problems at the appropriate level of complexity. Take for
instance in the area of business management, or administration or even your own area of
specialization, you can depend on basic research for discovering the more general laws of
management or administration, but you have to employ applied research to determine how these
laws operate in the real situation if scientific changes are to be affected in our lives, this approach
will continue to be very essential. At this juncture, you have to note that there is no sharp line of
demarcation between basic and applied research. This is because applications of theory help in
solving practical problems. You always apply the theories of administration or organization in
your business management. On the other hand, basic research can also depend upon the findings
of applied research to complete the theoretical formulations for example an organizational
experiment could shed some light on a learning theory. At the same time, observations in a
practical situation serve to test theories and may lead to the formulation of new theories.
When research is classified according to methodology, if can also be classified according to
Creswell (1994) into two broad areas. These are quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research: According to Leedy (1995) Quantitative research is

an inquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a theory composed of variables
measured with numbers or figures and analyzed with statistical procedures in order to determine
whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true. He also defines Qualitative
research is an enquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a
complex, holistic picture formed with words reporting detailed views of information, and
conducted in a natural setting. Whereas quantitative research, sometimes referred to as the
traditional, the positivist, the experimental or the empiricist approach, is typically used to answer
questions about the relationships among measured variables with the purpose of explaining,
predicting and controlling phenomena; the qualitative research is used to an answer questions
about the nature of phenomena with the purpose of describing and understanding the phenomena
from the participant‟s points of view. The qualitative research is sometimes referred to as the
interpretative, the naturalistic, the constructivist or the postpositive approach.
MODULE 2 TOPIC SELECTION

Unit 1 Introduction

Unit 2 Criteria for Prioritizing Problems for Research

Unit 3 Analyzing the Problem

Unit 1 Introductiom

To select a topic, one will need to search for a problem in his/her area of interest. A topic is
usually derived from a problem formulated. Searching for a problem involves diagnosing
solvable problems in our system. After searching for a problem, one will investigate whether the
problem is researchable.

Whether a problem requires research depends on three conditions:

I) There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy between what it is and what it

should be;
II) The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so that it makes sense to develop
a research question); and
III) There should be more than one possible and plausible answer to the question (or
solution to the problem).

Unit 2 Criteria for Prioritizing Problems for Research

Each problem that is proposed for research has to be judged according to certain guidelines or
criteria. There may be several ideas to choose from. Before deciding on a research topic, each
proposed topic must be compared with all other options. The selection and analysis of the
problem for research should involve those who are responsible for various status of the
community. This would include managers and community leaders, as well as researchers.

The guidelines or criteria given below can help in the process of selection.

Criteria for selecting a research topic

1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority problem: Questions to be asked include:
ƒ How large or widespread is the problem? ƒ Who is affected? ƒ How severe is the problem?

2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the topic has been researched. If the topic has
been researched, the results should be reviewed to explore whether major questions that deserve
further investigation remain unanswered. If not, another topic should be chosen.

3. Feasibility: Consider the complexity of the problem and the resources you will require to
carry out the study. Thought should be given first to personnel, time, equipment and money that
are locally available. In situations where the local resources necessary to carry out the project are
not sufficient, you might consider sources available at the national level.

4. Political acceptability: It is advisable to research a topic that has the interest and support of the
authorities. This will facilitate the smooth conduct of the research and increases the chance that
the results of the study will be implemented.

5. Applicability of possible results and recommendations : Is it likely that the recommendations

from the study will be applied? This will depend not only on the blessing of the authorities but
also on the availability of resources for implementing the recommendations.

6. Urgency of data needed

How urgently are the results needed for making a decision? Which research should be done first
and which can be done late?

7. Ethical acceptability We should always consider the possibility that we may inflict harm on
others while carrying out research. Therefore, it will be useful to review the proposed study.

Unit 3 Analyzing the Problem

A systematic analysis of the problem, completed jointly by the researchers, health workers,
managers, and community representatives is a very crucial step in designing the research because
it:

• Enables those concerned to bring together their knowledge of the problem,

• Clarifies the problem and the possible factors that may be contributing to it,

• Facilitates decisions concerning the focus and scope of the research.

3.1 Formulating the Problem Statement

After identifying, selecting and analyzing the problem, the next major section in a research
proposal is “statement of the problem”

Why is it important to state and define the problem well? Because a clear statement of the
problem: ƒ
a) Is the foundation for the further development of the research proposal (research objectives,
methodology, work plan, etc); ƒ
b) Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your own
study design can benefit; ƒ
c) Enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem
should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results.

3.2 Points that need to be considered for justifying the selected research problem

A problem selected to be studied has to be justified in terms of its: ƒ

Being a current and existing problem which needs solution ƒ

Being a widely spread problem affecting a target population ƒ

Being a problem which concerns the planners, policy makers and the communities at large.

3.3 Information included in the statement of a problem

• A brief description of socioeconomic and cultural characteristics and an overview of health
status.

• A more detailed description of the nature of the problem - basic description of the research
problem - the discrepancy between what is and what should be - its size, distribution, and
severity (who is affected, where, since when, etc.)

• An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a convincing argument
that available knowledge is insufficient to answer a certain question and to update the previous
knowledge.

• A brief description of any solutions that have been tried in the past, how well they have
worked, and why further research is needed.

• A description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how this
information will be used to help solve the problem

• If necessary, a short list of definitions of crucial concepts used in the statement of the problem.
MODULE 3 LITERATURE SURVEY

Unit 1 Literature Review

Unit 2 Goals and Process of Literature Reviews

Unit 3 Research Question

Unit 1 Literature Review

A literature review or survey is an organised write up showing previous work done concerning a
research topic or question in your field. The aim of a literature review is to show your reader
(e.g. your supervisor) that you have read and that you have a good grasp of the main published
work concerning a particular topic or question in your field. This work may be in any format,
including online sources. It may be a separate assignment, or one of the introductory sections of
a report, dissertation or thesis. In the latter cases in particular, the review will be guided by your
research objective or by the issue or thesis you are arguing and will provide the framework for
your further work.It is very important to note that your review should not be simply a description
of what others have published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form of a
critical discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and
approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant published work, linked at all
times to your own purpose and rationale. A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what
has been written, identifies areas of controversy, raises questions and identifies areas which need
further research.

A literature review “is an essential feature of any academic project” (Webster and Watson 2002,
p. xiii). Most literature reviews in information systems (IS) research use the framework proposed
by Webster and Watson's (2002). However, their framework includes little information about
how to rigorously identify research gaps when conducting literature reviews. As Webster and
Watson note, “a review should identify critical knowledge gaps and thus motivate researchers to
close this breach” (Webster and Watson 2002, p. xix). However, they do not propose a modus
operandi for ensuring rigor and replicability in that process. However, for conducting literature
reviews rigor (e.g., Cooper 1998; Levy and Ellis 2006) and systematicity (Rowe 2014) are
essential as they enhance the quality of the review since rigorous and systematic reviews are
more useful and replicable (Wolfswinkel et al. 2013; Rowe, 2014). Based on the finding that “the
identification of such [research] gaps has not been completed in a systematic way” (Robinson et
al. 2011, p. 1325), Robinson et al. (2011) developed a framework for rigorously identifying
research gaps. In addition, they point out that as researchers aim for conducting relevant future
research, it is important to provide them with research gaps that are rigorously identified and
characterized. However, their framework solely focuses on quantitative literature reviews
(metaanalyses) in the health care domain. Hence, there is a need for a framework that helps
scholars to identify research gaps in qualitative literature reviews whose objective is to
summarize extant theory to identify gaps in theory or research. The development of such a
framework needs to be informed by justificatory knowledge.

According to Caulley (1992) of La Trobe University, the literature review should do the
following:
• compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue

• group authors who draw similar conclusions

• criticise aspects of methodology

• note areas in which authors are in disagreement

• highlight exemplary studies

• highlight gaps in research

• show how your study relates to previous studies

• show how your study relates to the literature in general

• conclude by summarising what the literature says

The general purposes of the review are to:

• help you define and limit the problem you are working on

• help you place your study in an historical perspective

• help you avoid unnecessary duplication

• help you evaluate promising research methods

• help you relate your findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research

If you make a good literature review you will have the following advantages:

1. It shows that you do not only understand what you have done, but you understand what others
have done related to your subject in a broader context. Several researchers have already done lots
of work on your subject. If you can tell people about what research has already been done and
what methods already exist, then your readers will think that at least you are interested in your
topic, have some self-initiative and are informed and up-to-date on your research area.

2. It shows that you are intelligent enough to evaluate the quality of the other research work done
on the subject, i.e., it shows that you are capable of thinking critically and identifying strengths
and weakness.

3. It gives you the opportunity to tell how your research is related to previous work done by
others on the subject.
4. It tells the reader if you are simply going to duplicate others’ work simply to gain a better
understanding, or whether your focus is to improve upon others’ work or perhaps combine the
methodology of two or more existing approaches to solving a problem.

Unit 2 Goals and Process of Literature Reviews

BE A HUNTER! Go online and search for articles, books and papers related to your subject. Be
creative and persistent in your keyword search until you hunt down good references or examples.
It is important, therefore, to try and decide on the parameters of your research. What exactly are
your objectives and what do you need to find out? In your review, are you looking at issues of
theory, methodology, policy, quantitive research, or what? Before you start reading it may be
useful to compile a list of the main areas and questions involved, and then read with the purpose
of finding out about or answering these. Unless something comes up which is particularly
important, stick to this list, as it is very easy to get sidetracked, particularly on the internet

Hart (2009, p.13) defines a literature review as “the selection of available documents (both
published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence
written from a particular standpoint to fulfill certain aims or express certain views on the nature
of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in
relation to the research being proposed”. Yet, this definition does not refer to the importance of
rigor for thorough literature reviews. As Cooper (1998, p. 3) notes, “research synthesists must be
required to meet the same rigorous methodological standards that are applied to primary
researchers”. In this regard, literature reviews also refer to systematicity, as systematicity implies
reproducibility (Rowe 2014). Furthermore, a literature review should not only examine past
research, but also identify research gaps (Hart 2009; Rowe 2014; Webster Page 2 of 19A
Framework for Rigorously Identifying Research Gaps Thirty Sixth International Conference on
Information Systems, Fort Worth 2015 3 and Watson 2002) that can be derived from the
synthesis of existing research (Cooper 1998). A synthesis should provide guidance on where
future research would be most effective (Eagly and Wood 1994). Regarding literature reviews in
the field of IS, Webster and Watson’s (2002) seminal paper is widely regarded as the standard
approach (Wolfswinkel et al. 2013). The paper’s main contribution are guidelines that assist
scholars in conducting literature reviews in the domain of IS. According to vom Brocke et al.
(2009), a literature review in the field of IS consists of five phases (see Figure 1). Initially, the
scope of the review needs to be determined. Second, the topic should be conceptualized. This
also includes providing definitions of the key terms (Zorn and Campbell 2006). Third, a
literature search needs to be conducted. In the fourth step, the literature is analyzed and
synthesized. Finally, a research agenda is derived from the synthesis (vom Brocke et al. 2009)
Thus, identifying research gaps forms part of the last step (phase V) of von Brocke et al.’s
framework. It is important to note that the process of identifying research gaps is different from
the process of literature analysis and synthesis (phase IV). As noted above, research gaps are
derived from the synthesis (Cooper 1998). In contrast to the process of identifying research gaps,
the process of literature analysis and synthesis has been more thoroughly investigated and
methods have been identified (e.g., Webster and Watson 2002; Wolfswinkel et al. 2013).

2.1 Distinguishing Research Gaps, Research Problems, and Research Agenda

Robinson et al. (2011, p. 1325) define that a research gap arises „when the ability of the
systematic reviewer to draw conclusions is limited“. Nevertheless, a research gap also holds a
function as a starting point for research. While Robinson et al. (2011) emphasize that research
gaps represent an output (of literature reviews), we also perceive them as an input as they can
motivate further research. The term research problem might occasionally be used as a synonym
for research gaps. However, it focuses on the function as input for research, since a research
problem is a problem statement that is resolved by means of research (Jacobs 2011). A problem
statement represents “a gap in sets of information that, when examined carefully, results in a call
for action or resolution” (Jacobs 2011, p. 127), and “research seeks to resolve the disparate sets
of information through the generation of new knowledge and the introduction of theory” (Jacobs
2011, p. 128). As Jacobs notes, research problems must be derived, e.g., by means of literature
reviews. Robinson et al. (2011) focuses on research gaps as a result of the process of reviewing
literature, Jacobs (2011) emphasizes the formation of research problems and how these problems
might be resolved. Hence, a research gap arises when there is a gap in sets of information that is
derived from a literature synthesis and requires further research to be resolved. It might be
argued that it is possible to derive research gaps from other sources than literature syntheses.
Yet, the definition above does neither object nor claim exclusiveness. It merely states one major
possibility of how a research gap may arise. A research agenda is a set of questions for further
research (vom Brocke et al. 2009). However, the literature does not provide information whether
a set of research gaps may therefore be called research agenda. Whereas research gaps can
directly lead to questions for further research, this does not necessarily mean that all questions
for further research are derived from research gaps. Thus, it can be assumed that research gaps
are a part of research agendas, but not necessarily exclusively.

2.2 Classifying and Identifying Research Gaps

Characterizing research gaps deepens the understanding of how research gaps may be constituted
and may thus help to identify research gaps in literature reviews. Jacobs (2011) identifies six
kinds of research problems. While research problems are not necessarily research gaps, they
might be synonymous with research gaps in this case, as most researchers do not distinguish
between the two terms. Jacobs identifies six forms of research problems: Provocative exception,
contradictory evidence, knowledge void, action-knowledge conflict, methodological conflict, and
theoretical conflict. A provocative exception arises if a new research finding contradicts widely
accepted conclusions. Jacobs notes that the provocative exception usually does not stand out
prominently in the literature. To uncover these exceptions, it is necessary to carefully analyze
and scrutinize even subtle discrepancies. Contradictory evidence is related to the provocative
exception. It occurs if results from studies allow for conclusions in their own right, but are
contradictory when examined from a more abstract point of view. The identification of
contradictory evidence starts with analyzing each research stream. Subsequently, the results from
these analyses need to be synthesized in order to reveal contradictory evidence. Whereas Jacobs
doubts that there are many knowledge voids, he presents two settings where knowledge voids
might occur. First, knowledge may not exist in the actual field of research but in a related
research domain. In this case, it may be necessary for scholars to refer to theories and literature
from related research domains. Second, it might be the case that results of a study differ from
what was expected. This kind of discrepancy can motivate new research in this direction. An
action-knowledge conflict arises when the actual behavior of professionals is different from their
advocated behavior. In this case, research could seek to determine the scope of the conflict and to
uncover the reasons for its existence. It is also possible that a methodological conflict occurs due
to the influence of methodology on research results. Jacobs notes that it might be useful to vary
methods, especially if certain research topics have been mainly explored using a certain method.
Finally, if one phenomenon is being explained through various theoretical models, there might
be a theoretical conflict. Scholars could examine whether one of those theories is superior
regarding its explanatory force. To the best of our knowledge, only one approach exists for
identifying research gaps in qualitative literature reviews. This approach is called chart method,
also often referred to as concept matrix (see Table 1). The underlying principle is to chart each
source “according to predetermined categories” (Imel 2011, p. 152). Webster and Watson (2002)
recommend establishing categories so that it adds value to the review. For instance, categories
could feature “types of variables examined, level of analysis, gaps in the literature, or other
important theoretical issues” (Webster and Watson 2002, p. xviii).

Unit 3 Research Question

Research questions lie at the core of systematic investigation and this is because recording
accurate research outcomes is tied to asking the right questions. Asking the right questions when
conducting research can help you collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately
influences your work, positively.

A research question is a specific inquiry which the research seeks to provide a response to. It
resides at the core of systematic investigation and it helps you to clearly define a path for the
research process.

A research question is usually the first step in any research project. Basically, it is the primary
interrogation point of your research and it sets the pace for your work.
Typically, a research question focuses on the research, determines the methodology and
hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. With the right research
questions, you will be able to gather useful information for your investigation.

3.1 Types of Research Questions

Research questions are broadly categorized into 2; that is, qualitative research questions and
quantitative research questions. Qualitative and quantitative research questions can be used
independently and co-dependently in line with the overall focus and objectives of your research.

If your research aims at collecting quantifiable data, you will need to make use of quantitative
research questions. On the other hand, qualitative questions help you to gather qualitative
data bothering on the perceptions and observations of your research subjects.

Qualitative Research Questions

A qualitative research question is a type of systematic inquiry that aims at collecting qualitative
data from research subjects. The aim of qualitative research questions is to gather non-statistical
information pertaining to the experiences, observations, and perceptions of the research subjects
in line with the objectives of the investigation.

Types of Qualitative Research Questions

 Ethnographic Research Questions

As the name clearly suggests, ethnographic research questions are inquiries presented in
ethnographic research. Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach that involves
observing variables in their natural environments or habitats in order to arrive at objective
research outcomes.

These research questions help the researcher to gather insights into the habits, dispositions,
perceptions, and behaviors of research subjects as they interact in specific environments.
Ethnographic research questions can be used in education, business, medicine, and other fields of
study, and they are very useful in contexts aimed at collecting in-depth and specific information
that are peculiar to research variables. For instance, asking educational ethnographic research
questions can help you understand how pedagogy affects classroom relations and behaviors.

This type of research question can be administered physically through one-on-one interviews,
naturalism (live and work), and participant observation methods. Alternatively, the researcher
can ask ethnographic research questions via online surveys and questionnaires created with
Formplus.

Examples of Ethnographic Research Questions

1. Why do you use this product?

2. Have you noticed any side effects since you started using this drug?
3. Does this product meet your needs?
  Case Studies

A case study is a qualitative research approach that involves carrying out a detailed investigation
into a research subject(s) or variable(s). In the course of a case study, the researcher gathers a
range of data from multiple sources of information via different data collection methods, and
over a period of time.

The aim of a case study is to analyze specific issues within definite contexts and arrive at
detailed research subject analyses by asking the right questions. This research method can be
explanatory, descriptive, or exploratory depending on the focus of your systematic investigation
or research.

An explanatory case study is one that seeks to gather information on the causes of real-life
occurrences. This type of case study uses "how" and "why" questions in order to gather valid
information about the causative factors of an event.

Descriptive case studies are typically used in business researches, and they aim at analyzing the
impact of changing market dynamics on businesses. On the other hand, exploratory case studies
aim at providing answers to "who" and "what" questions using data collection tools like
interviews and questionnaires.

Some questions you can include in your case studies are:

1. Why did you choose our services?

2. How has this policy affected your business output?
3. What benefits have you recorded since you started using our product?
  Interviews

An interview is a qualitative research method that involves asking respondents a series of

questions in order to gather information about a research subject. Interview questions can
be close-ended or open-ended, and they prompt participants to provide valid information that is
useful to the research.

An interview may also be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, and this further influences
the types of questions they include. Structured interviews are made up of more close-ended
questions because they aim at gathering quantitative data while unstructured interviews consist,
primarily, of open-ended questions that allow the researcher to collect qualitative information
from respondents.
You can conduct interview research by scheduling a physical meeting with respondents, through
a telephone conversation, and via digital media and video conferencing platforms like Skype and
Zoom. Alternatively, you can use Formplus surveys and questionnaires for your interview.

Examples of interview questions include:

1. What challenges did you face while using our product?

2. What specific needs did our product meet?
3. What would you like us to improve our service delivery?

3.2 Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research questions are questions that are used to gather quantifiable data from
research subjects. These types of research questions are usually more specific and direct because
they aim at collecting information that can be measured; that is, statistical information.

Types of Quantitative Research Questions

 Descriptive Research Questions

Descriptive research questions are inquiries that researchers use to gather quantifiable data about
the attributes and characteristics of research subjects. These types of questions primarily seek
responses that reveal existing patterns in the nature of the research subjects.

It is important to note that descriptive research questions are not concerned with the causative
factors of the discovered attributes and characteristics. Rather, they focus on the "what"; that is,
describing the subject of the research without paying attention to the reasons for its occurrence.

Descriptive research questions are typically closed-ended because they aim at gathering definite
and specific responses from research participants. Also, they can be used in customer experience
surveys and market research to collect information about target markets and consumer
behaviors.

Descriptive Research Question Examples

1. How often do you make use of our fitness application?

2. How much would you be willing to pay for this product?
  Comparative Research Questions

A comparative research question is a type of quantitative research question that is used to gather
information about the differences between two or more research subjects across different
variables. These types of questions help the researcher to identify distinct features that mark one
research subject from the other while highlighting existing similarities.

Asking comparative research questions in market research surveys can provide insights on how
your product or service matches its competitors. In addition, it can help you to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of your product for a better competitive advantage.

The 5 steps involved in the framing of comparative research questions are:

1. Choose your starting phrase

2. Identify and name the dependent variable
 3. Identify the groups you are interested in
4. Identify the appropriate adjoining text
5. Write out the comparative research question

Comparative Research Question Samples

1. What are the differences between a landline telephone and a smartphone?

2. What are the differences between work-from-home and on-site operations?

 Relationship-based Research Questions

Just like the name suggests, a relationship-based research question is one that inquires into the
nature of the association between two research subjects within the same demographic. These
types of research questions help you to gather information pertaining to the nature of the
association between two research variables.

Relationship-based research questions are also known as correlational research questions because
they seek to clearly identify the link between 2 variables.

Examples of relationship-based research questions include:

1. What is the relationship between purchasing power and the business site?
2. What is the relationship between the work environment and workforce turnover?
Examples of a Good Research Question

Since research questions lie at the core of any systematic investigations, it is important to know
how to frame a good research question. The right research questions will help you to gather the
most objective responses that are useful to your systematic investigation.

A good research question is one that requires impartial responses and can be answered via
existing sources of information. Also, a good research question seeks answers that actively
contribute to a body of knowledge; hence, it is a question that is yet to be answered in your
specific research context.

 Open-Ended Questions

An open-ended question is a type of research question that does not restrict respondents to a set
of premeditated answer options. In other words, it is a question that allows the respondent to
freely express his or her perceptions and feelings towards the research subject.

Examples of Open-ended Questions

1. How do you deal with stress in the workplace?

2. What is a typical day at work like for you?

 Close-ended Questions

A close-ended question is a type of survey question that restricts respondents to a set of

predetermined answers such as multiple-choice questions. Close-ended questions typically
require yes or no answers and are commonly used in quantitative research to gather numerical
data from research participants.

Examples of Close-ended Questions

 Did you enjoy this event?

1. Yes
2. No
  How likely are you to recommend our services?

1. Very Likely
2. Somewhat Likely
3. Unlikely

 Likert Scale Questions

A Likert scale question is a type of close-ended question that is structured as a 3-point, 5-point,
or 7-point psychometric scale. This type of question is used to measure the survey respondent's
disposition towards multiple variables and it can be unipolar or bipolar in nature.

Example of Likert Scale Questions

 How satisfied are you with our service delivery?

1. Very dissatisfied
2. Not satisfied
3. Neutral
4. Satisfied
5. Very satisfied

 Rating Scale Questions

A rating scale question is a type of close-ended question that seeks to associate a specific
qualitative measure (rating) with the different variables in research. It is commonly used in
customer experience surveys, market research surveys, employee reviews, and product
evaluations.

Example of Rating Questions

 How would you rate our service delivery?

1. Excellent
2. Good
 3. Neutral
4. Bad
5. Very bad

Examples of a Bad Research Question

Knowing what bad research questions are would help you avoid them in the course of your
systematic investigation. These types of questions are usually unfocused and often result in
research biases that can negatively impact the outcomes of your systematic investigation.

 Loaded Questions

A loaded question is a question that subtly presupposes one or more unverified assumptions
about the research subject or participant. This type of question typically boxes the respondent in
a corner because it suggests implicit and explicit biases that prevent objective responses.

Example of Loaded Questions

1. Have you stopped smoking?

2. Where did you hide the money?

 Negative Questions

A negative question is a type of question that is structured with an implicit or explicit negator.
Negative questions can be misleading because they upturn the typical yes/no response order by
requiring a negative answer for affirmation and an affirmative answer for negation.

Examples of Negative Questions

1. Would you mind dropping by my office later today?

2. Didn't you visit last week?

 Leading Questions
A leading question is a type of survey question that nudges the respondent towards an already-
determined answer. It is highly suggestive in nature and typically consists of biases and
unverified assumptions that point towards its premeditated responses.

Examples of Leading Questions

1. If you enjoyed this service, would you be willing to try out our other packages?
2. Our product met your needs, didn't it?

How to Use Formplus as Online Research Questionnaire Tool

With Formplus, you can create and administer your online research questionnaire easily. In the
form builder, you can add different form fields to your questionnaire and edit these fields to
reflect specific research questions for your systematic investigation.

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to create an online research questionnaire with Formplus:

 Sign in to your Formplus account, then click on the "create new form" button in your
dashboard to access the Form builder.
 In the form builder, add preferred form fields to your online research questionnaire by
dragging and dropping them into the form. Add a title to your form in the title block. You
can edit form fields by clicking on the "pencil" icon on the right corner of each form
field.
 Save the form to access the customization section of the builder. Here, you can tweak the
appearance of your online research questionnaire by adding background images,
changing the form font, and adding your organization's logo.
 Finally, copy your form link and share it with respondents. You can also use any of the
multiple sharing options available.
Conclusion

The success of your research starts with framing the right questions to help you collect the most
valid and objective responses. Be sure to avoid bad research questions like loaded and negative
questions that can be misleading and adversely affect your research data and outcomes.

Your research questions should clearly reflect the aims and objectives of your systematic
investigation while laying emphasis on specific contexts. To help you seamlessly gather
responses for your research questions, you can create an online research questionnaire on
Formplus.
MODULE 4 METHODOLOGY

Unit 1 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Unit 2 The Research Instrument

Unit 3 Research Methods versus Methodology

UNIT 4 HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Unit 1 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection
can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Data collection is the
process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study
including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by
discipline, the

emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. Data collection methods
for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At one end of this continuum are quantitative
methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative methods for data collection. In
collecting the data, the researcher must decide:

1. Which data to collect

2. How to collect the data

3. Who will collect the data

4. When to collect the data

The selection of the chosen data collection method should be based on the following:

1. The identified hypothesis or research problem.

2. The research design

3. The information gathered about the variables being studied.

The methods of data collection vary according to:

1. The degree of structure

2. Degree of quantifiability

3. Degree of obtrusive (conspicuousness, un-mistakeableness)

4. Degree of objectivity

Different ways of collecting evaluation data are useful for different purposes, and each has
advantages and disadvantages. Various factors will influence your choice of a data collection
method: the questions you want to investigate, resources available to you, your timeline, and
more.

1.1 The Quantitative data collection methods.

They rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse
experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to
summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses
derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.
Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different
treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational
characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome,
variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the
researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

 Experiments/clinical trials.

 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting

 in emergency at specified times of the day). Obtaining relevant data from management
information systems.

 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone

 interviews, questionnaires etc).

1.2 Qualitative data collection methods

They play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information useful to understand
the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-
being. Furthermore qualitative methods can beused to improve the quality of survey-based
quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of
survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings.

These methods are characterized by the following attributes:

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change

 the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants) they
rely more heavily on iteractive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several

 times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data they
use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on multiple
data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results) generally their findings are not
generalizable to any specific population, rather each case study produces a single piece of
evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among different studies of the same issue
Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal
of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and
systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means.
The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research.

The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad
categories:  indepth interview

 observation methods

 document review

Unit 2 The Research Instrument

The research instrument or a tool is described as a device used to collect the data. It facilitates
variable observation and measurement. The type of instrument suitable for use by the researcher
depends on the data collection method selected. Instrument selection and or development require
a high degree of research expertise because the instrument must be reliable and valid.

2.1 Ways of searching for Research Instrument

1. Read professional journals so as to learn (i) what kind of instruments are being used for
similar studies (ii) their format (iii) their style (iv) how they are used by the writers.

2. Read books that provide a description or an actual copy of various instruments for the reader.

3. Talk with other researchers who may know of certain tools they have developed for
themselves or who may have used tools developed by others.

4. Combine or adapt one or more tools used by other researchers.

5. Develop his/her own instrument to fulfil a specific need

2.2 Guidelines for Developing an Instrument

1. The instrument must be suitable for its function

2. The research tool will only be effective only as it relates to its particular purpose.

3. The instrument must be based on the theoretical framework selected for the study.

4. The instrument must be valid

5. The content of the instrument must be appropriate to test the hypothesis or answer the question
being studied.

6. The instrument should be reliable

7. The devised research tool should provide comparable data every time the subject uses the
instrument.

8. An instrument should include an item that directly asks questions on the hypothesis.

9. The research tool should be designed and constructed in such a way that cheating is
minimized.

10. The instrument should be free of bias

11. A good instrument is free of build-in clues.

12. The instrument should not contain measures that function as hints for desired responses.

13. The researcher may need to read extensively to identify which aspects of the theory are
appropriate for investigation.

14. The researcher through the instrument must be able to gather data that are appropriate in
order to test the hypothesis or to answer the question under investigation.
15. The researcher should gather a group of items from such sources such as persons
knowledgeable in the field, accepted theories or hypothesis, personal experience, or materials
from studies reported in books and professional journals.

16. The response given by the respondent in the research study should solely be his/her own.
There should be no contamination through outside influences such as someone else’s ideas or
products. Therefore the respondent who agrees to participate in a study is responsible for
supplying information or for exhibiting behaviour that is truly his/her own.

2.3 Types of Research Instruments

1. Questionnaire

2. Check list

3.. Interview

4. Observation

5. Records

6. Experimental Approach

7. Survey Approach

1. QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire is a series of questions designed to elicit information which is filled in by all

participants in the sample. This can be gathered either by oral interview or by written
questionnaire. Questionnaire is the most common type of research instrument.

Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher
time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding
controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. But they also
have drawbacks .Majority of the people who receive questionnaires don't return them and those
who do might not be representative of the originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet
based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address
that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often
quicker and less detailed.

Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer
or are unable to access a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people
might be in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.

Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.These devices help simplify and
quantify people's behaviors and attitudes.

A checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics, or other entities that the researcher is looking
for. Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is
observed, present or true or vice versa. A rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be
evaluated on a continuum. They are also known as Likert scales. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Advantages of Questionnaire

1. Relatively simple methods of collecting or obtaining data

2. Consumes less time
3. Allows researcher to collect data from a widely scattered sample.

Disadvantages of Questionnaire

1. Responses to a Questionnaire lack depth.

2. Respondent may omit or disregard any item he/she chooses.

3. Some items may force the respondent to select responses that are not his/her actual choice.

4. Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the respondent’s interest.

5. Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.

6. Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the respondents.

7. Some items may be misunderstood.

8. The sample is limited to those who are literate.

Techniques for developing Questionnaires

1. Researcher may read literature about the topic, look through available questionnaire or obtain
help from experts.

2. Open ended questions are preferable than closed ended questions since they reflect
respondent’s attitudes and feelings which are expressed in his own words.

3. If yes – no questions are used, additional information may be gained by leaving space for
respondent’s own ideas.

4. The possibility of a middle ground statement is also important.

5. Every item on the questionnaire should relate to the topic under study.

Criteria of a good Questionnaire

1. Clarity of Language. It must meet the level of understanding of the respondents in order to
generate needed responses.

2. Singleness of objective. An item must have one and only one answer.

3. One-to-One correspondence. The questionnaire as a whole must correspond with the

objectives of the study.

4. Correct Grammar, Spelling and Construction.

The questionnaire must be constructed by observing grammatically correct sentences, correctly

spelled words, coherence in construction of sentences, etc.
Characteristics of a good Questionnaire.

1. It has a well stated title.

2. It has a statement of purpose

3. It assures the respondents about the confidentiality of responses.

4. It is designed to achieve the objective of the study.

5. It has a clear direction

6. There are no double-negative questions.

7. It avoids double-barrels questions.

8. The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of data.

Degree of structure questions

1. Open-Ended Questions: This gives the respondents the ability to respond to the questions in
their own words.

2. Closed-Ended Questions: This allows the subject to choose one of the given alternatives.

Specific types of Closed ended questions.

1. Dichotomous questions. This requires the respondents to make a choice between two
responses such as yes/no, male/female, married or unmarried, etc. Example (i) Have you
travelled outside Nigeria (a) yes (b) No

2. Multiple questions. This offers the respondents more than one choice. Example (i) How
favourable is it to you to become pregnant at this time? (a) Very favourable (b) favourable (c)
Not sure (d) unfavourable (e) Very unfavourable.
3. Cafeteria Questions. This is a special type of multiple choice question where the respondents
are required to select a response according to their own point of view. Example People have
different views on ―family planning. Which of the following best represents your view?

(a) Family planning is necessary to quality life.

(b) Family planning is immoral and should be totally banned.

(c) Family planning has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution.

(d) Family planning has beneficial effects that merit its practice.

(e) Family planning is moral and should be practiced.

4. Rank-Order Questions. The respondents are asked to choose a response from the ―most‖ to
the ―least‖. Example Why must family planning be practiced? Rank your answer from the 1-
most reasonable to 5-least reasonable? (a) It limits maternal disabilities. (b) Gives parents more
time to meet family needs. (c) Helps maintain financial viability of the family. (d) Afford more
working hours for couples. (e) Ensures family capabilities to educate all the children in the
future.

5. Rating Questions. The respondents are asked to judge something along an ordered dimension.
This is typically bipolar in nature with the end points specifying the opposite extremes of a
continuum. Example: On the scale of 1-5 where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly
agree, the health centre in Landmark University provides you with the best of health services.
Scale 5. Strongly agree 4. Agree. 3. Uncertain. 2. Disagree 1. Strongly disagree.

2.CHECK LIST.
Check list are items that comprise several questions on a topic and require the same response
format.

3.INTERVIEW

This involves either structured or unstructured verbal communication between the researcher and
the subject during which information is obtained for a study. In Quantitative research (survey
research), interviews are more structured than in Qualitative research.

Types of Interviews

1. Unstructured Interviews. These are more conversational, very long (sometimes hours) and are
conducted in a usual situation. It allows the researcher flexibility in questioning the subject.

2. Structured Interviews. These always operate within formal written instrument referred to as
interview schedule. The researcher designed the questions to be asked and their order prior to the
interview. The questions are asked orally either face-to-face or telephone format. In a structured
interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more.(Leedy and Ormrod,
2001)

Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish
rapport with potential participants and therefor gain their cooperation. These interviews yield
highest response rates in survey research. They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous
answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical
when large samples are involved time consuming and expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready
access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the response rate is
not as high as the face-to- face interview but cosiderably higher than the mailed questionnaire.
The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population
about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences. Computer

Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of

completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter
the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the
data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires.
However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that
interviewers have computer and typing skills.

Advantages of Interview

1. Data from interview are usable.

2. Depth of response can be assured.

3. In an exploratory study, the interview technique provides basis for the formation of
questionnaire.

4. Clarification is possible.

5. No items are overlooked.

6. Higher proportion of responses is obtained.

7. Greater amount of flexibility is allowed.

Disadvantages of Interview

1. It consumes time

2. Biases may result 3. It is usually costly

4. OBSERVATION

Observation is most commonly used in qualitative research. In observation the researcher usually
has some prior knowledge about the behaviour or occurrence of interest. Types of Observation:

1. Unstructured Observation. This is a method of collecting research data that has both opponents
and proponents.

2. Structured Observation. This involves preparation of record keeping forms such as category
systems, check lists and rating scales.
Advantages of observation.

1. Produces large quantities of data with relative ease.

2. All data obtained from observation are usable.

3. Relatively inexpensive.

4. All subjects are potential respondents.

5. Subjects are usually available.

6. The observation technique can be stopped or begun at any time.

7. Observations may be recorded at the time they occur thus eliminating the possibility of bias
due to recall.

Disadvantages of observation.

1. Accurate prediction of a situation or event to be observed is unlikely to occur.

2. Interviewing selected subjects may provide more information, economically than waiting for
the spontaneous occurrence of the situation.

3. The presence of an observer gives the subject a quality normally absent.

4. Observed events are subject to biases.

5. Extensive training is usually needed.

5.RECORDS

A record refers to all the numbers and statistics that institutions, organizations and people keep
as a record of their activities.
Sources of records include:

1. Census data

2. Educational data or records

3. Hospital/Clinic records.

Advantages of Records

1. Records are unbiased

2. Records often cover a long period of time.

3. Records are inexpensive.

Disadvantages of Records

1. All the researcher can have is what has been recorded. If the record is incomplete, there is no
way it can be completed.

2. No one can be sure of the conditions under which the records were collected.

3. There is no assurance of the accuracy of the records.

6. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

This is a powerful design for testing hypothesis of causal relationships among variables. In
experimental approach, the researcher controls the independent variable and watches the effect
on the dependent variable. There are two groups of experimental approach:

1. Treatment/Experimental group

2. Control group.

Disadvantages of Experimental Approach

1. It is difficult to minimize all the variables in which the control and experimental groups might
differ. 2. Causal relationships are difficult if not impossible to establish.

3. The time element may confound the results of experimental research.

4. In an experimental Laboratory setting, it may be difficult to obtain subjects, especially

subjects who are unaware of the experiment.

7.SURVEY APPROACH

We have two types of survey approach:

1. Non experimental type in which the researcher investigates the community or a group of
people.

2. Formulative or explorative research

Advantages of survey Approach

1. It can provide information about the possibilities of undertaking different types of research
methods. 2. It provides data about the present.

3. It has a high degree of representativeness.

4. It is quite easy to get respondents who are willing to supply information by expressing their
true reaction to the questions.

Disadvantages of Survey approach

1. Yields a low degree of control over extraneous variables.

2. Verbal behaviour is quite unreliable especially when it involves people.

2.4 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

Measurement is the process by which the researcher assigns specific number to the collected
data. Levels of Measurement.

1. Nominal level (The lowest level). This level includes assignment of numbers simply to
classify characteristics into categories. It usually involves assigning a code to a label. For
example in relation to marital status, 0 might represent single and 1 might represent married.
Nominal level variables include sex, marital status, health status, etc.

2. Ordinal level (the second lowest level). This level permits the sorting of objects on the basis of
their standing on an attribute relative to each other. Data are categorised and ranked order from
―most‖ to ―least‖ according to frequency of occurrence. It represents the rank order 1st, 2nd,
3rd, etc. Different scales used in ordinal level are: (i) Likert scale (ii) Guttman scale (iii) Graphic
rating scale (iv) Semantic differential scale. 3.

Unit 3 Research Methods versus Methodology

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and
research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the
methods the researchers *At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and
research methods. Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in
performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of
processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in
selecting and constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between methods and
techniques of data collection can better be understood from the details given in the following
chart—

Type Methods Techniques

1. Library (i) Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and
Film listening and Research
records analysis.
 (ii) Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and
manipulations, reference and abstract
guides, contents analysis.

2. Field (i) Non-participant direct Observational behavioural scales,

use of score cards, etc. Research observation

(ii) Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use

of tape recorders, photo graphic techniques.

(iii) Mass observation Recording mass behaviour,

interview using independent observers in public places.

(iv) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and

economic background of respondents.

(v) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective

techniques, use of sociometric scales.

(vi) Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed

schedule with open and closed questions.

(vii) Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention

upon a given experience and its effects.

(viii) Group interview Small groups of respondents

are interviewed simultaneously.

(ix) Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for

information and for discerning opinion; may also be used as a follow up of
questionnaire.

(x) Case study and life history Cross sectional

collection of data for intensive analysis, longitudinal collection of data of
intensive character.
3. Laboratory Small group study of random Use of audio-visual recording
devices, use of observers, etc. Research behaviour, play and role analysis

From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods
that generate techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and
when we talk of research methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within
their compass. Research Methodology use in performing research operations. In other words, all
those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research
problem are termed as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied
research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown
aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this
in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the
required solution;

2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the
analytical tools of research.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean
and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various
techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is
necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ
from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously
evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects
particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials
and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research
decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely
what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions
and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research
methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been
undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has
been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted,
why particular technique of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions
are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or
study.

Research and Scientific Method

For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already
stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of
any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than
particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more
complicated and general situations.” On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research
methods and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is
usually given the name of scientific method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific
method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all
logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material;
the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes
their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science.”Scientific method is
the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a
systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of
these three in varying proportions.” In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions
explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops
the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable
phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is
most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey
investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. Experimentation is done to
test hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among variables. But the conclusions
drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized for either faulty assumptions,
poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty interpretations. As such the
researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the experimental design and must
state only probable inferences. The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide
scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:

1. It relies on empirical evidence;

2. It utilizes relevant concepts;

3. It is committed to only objective considerations;

4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;

6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing the
conclusions through replication;

7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
the demands of logic and objective procedure.”Accordingly, scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a
method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the
investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• To explore and analyse more general issues

• To test hypothesis (ses) or theory (ies).

• To construct or create a new procedure or system.

• To generate new knowledge.

• To explain a new phenomenon.

• A combination of any of the above

UNIT 4 HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what a research proposal
means, nor do they understand its importance. To put it bluntly, one's research is only as a good
as one's proposal. An ill-conceived proposal dooms the project even if it somehow gets through
the Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high quality proposal, on the other hand, not only promises
success for the project, but also impresses your Thesis Committee about your potential as a
researcher. A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile
research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a
research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and
include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate Sthe proposed study. Regardless of your
research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following
questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it.
The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an
important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major
issues, and that your methodology is sound. The quality of your research proposal depends not
only on the quality of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A
good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written.
Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.

This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas under
the following areas:

Title of Project: It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation
of . . ." could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because
such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think
of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also
predisposes him/her favourably towards the proposal.

Introduction: The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or
context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest
problem in proposal writing. If the research problem is framed in the context of a general,
rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting.
However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research
area, its significance will become evident. Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how
to frame your research question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and
informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and
the depth of your understanding of problem areas. However, try to place your research question
in the context of either a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you
need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary
context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify
"key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In short, try to paint
your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its significance. The
introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a
specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study.
The introduction generally covers the following elements:

1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.

2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its
necessity and importance.

3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.

4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.

5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively,
specify the phenomenon you want to study.

6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you
may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null
hypothesis.)

7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.

8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)

Literature Review: Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section.
However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the
literature. The literature review serves several important functions:

1. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".

2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.

3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.

4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your
research question.

5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.

6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.

7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for
your research.

8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial
contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap
in the literature).

Most students' literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

Lacking organization and structure

 Lacking focus, unity and coherence

 Being repetitive and verbose

 Failing to cite influential papers

 Failing to keep up with recent developments

 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers

 Citing irrelevant or trivial references

 Depending too much on secondary sources

 Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to
your proposal.
There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to bring
order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of your
research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on related
issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.
It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it in a
stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your
worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.)

Methods: The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how
you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the
activities necessary for the completion of your project. The guiding principle for writing the
Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine
whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient
details for another qualified researcher to implement the study. You need to demonstrate your
knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that your approach is the most appropriate
and most valid way to address your research question. Please note that your research question
may be best answered by qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists
are still biased against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological variety, you may
need to justify your qualitative method. Furthermore, since there are no well-established and
widely accepted canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate
than what is required for traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collection
process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative
research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze
your data. For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following
sections:

1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you
choose?

2. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure
do you use?
3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why did you
choose them? Are they valid and reliable?

4. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long
does it take?

Results: Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have
some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be
used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis.

Discussion: It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed
research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating
the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses
of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by
the early developmental stage of your research area.

Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing

1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.

2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.

3. Failure to cite landmark studies.

4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers.

5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.

6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.

7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

8. Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction. (The best
proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.

10. Too long or too short.

11. Failing to follow the APA style.

12. Slopping writing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

• Clear problem focus

• Objective and unbiased presentation of research findings

• Addresses knowledge gaps

• Methodologically sound- appropriate methods are adopted in data collection and analysis

• Methodological limitations are identified and an attempt is made to overcome them

• Due acknowledgement is given to other’s work

• Well organized and clear presentation of data as well as ideas

• Clarity and consistency are maintained through out the research

• Offer adequate explanation of phenomena or issues

• Validity and reliability of the findings are established • Findings are treated as tentativ