03.10.

2024

ELECTROTECHNICS AND
ELECTRONICS Lectures

DIRECT CURRENT

The vast majority of information and energy is transfered is transmitted with the
use of electric current.
Term „electric current” is described as the movement of electric charge carriers
(electrons, positive and negative ions) per unit time – i(t). Examples of current
waveform as a function of time are shown below.

i(t)

i(t)

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Parameter that specifies the flow of electrical current is value of current

intensity i(t), i.e. number of electric – Q that flows through a under
consideration region – S per unit time – t.

dQ
i(t) =
dt
If value of current intensity does not change during the time it is
talking about the flow of direct current.
i(t)

I(t) = Q = const.
t
t

The value of current intensity is is expressed in amperes [A] or derived units,

milliamperes [mA], mikroamperes [A], kiloamperes [kA].

The movement of electric charge carriers is caused by an external

electric field (generated by the voltage source). The vector of electric
field strength E is the basic quantity that characterizes electric field. It
is defined as the force value (Coulomb force) F acting on the
elementary electric charge (probationary) q which is placed at the
point of the electric field (e.g. X).
Fx
Ex = lim
q→0 q
In the case of direct current, the movement of electric charge carriers
caused by an external electric field is orderly. Electric field inside
conductor is uniform, vector of electric field strength E is parallel to
vector force (Coulomb force) F acting on the electric charge Q flowing
through a conductor.

F
Ex = Qx  Fx = Ex · Q

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If between the two points of the electric field (e.g. X and Y, the distance
between them dl) there is a vector of electric field strength E difference,
means that this electric field will be able to move an electric charge (do the
work dA = F · dl).
Ability to move the electric charge between X and Y points is
expressed by voltage (potential difference) – UXY described by the
formula :
UXY =  E · dl
XY
In the case of direct current, the voltage value expresses the
relationship :
UXY = E · l

The voltage value is expressed in volts [V] or derived units, milivolts [mV],
mikrovolts [V], kilovolts [kV].

Note: Possession of voltage source is a necessary condition for

current to flow in a circuit.
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OHM’S LAW
When conductor element of length – l and cross-sectional area – S
was considered, it was found experimentally, that in steady state
conditions (temperature, humidity and pressure) there is a linear
relationship between current intensity - I and voltage – U causing this
current to flow. This expression in known as Ohm’s law.

U=R·I
The proportionality factor – R is called resistance, and is meausered in
ohms []. The opposite of this factor – G is called conductance and is
meausered in simens [S].

G= 1  I=G·U
R
Units:
A
= V S= S= 1
A V 

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OHM’S LAW
The resistance of a piece of conductor.
U
R=
U I

I
l
S
·l l
R= S = ·S
 - resistivity (specific electrical resistance) [·m]
 - electrical conductivity (specific electrical conductance) [S/m]

ELECTRIC POWER
Electric charge transfer – Q on distance – l caused make the work – A.
Assuming that the work is done at the time of – t, we callculate the power
– P which is emitted on resistance – R.

A F·l E·Q·l Q
P= = = = (E·l) = U · I
t t t t
Using the Ohm’s law we we get finally:

P = U · I = R · I2 = U2 · G
Power value is expressed in Watts [W = V·A = J/s] or derived units.

In the case of current flow through the resistance, electrical energy

transforms into heat according to the Joule's laws.

A = P · t = U · I · t = R · I2 · t = U2 · G · t

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TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE

Work of electric current A = P · t = U · I · t which is converted at

resistance R into heat, causes increase of conductor temperature. The
temperature increase from 0 to  causes change of resistance R0  R.

A satisfactory approximation is assumed, that in metals resistance is a

linear function of temperature.

R = R0 [1 +  ( - 0) ]
where:  - the temperature coefficient of resistance
(depends on the conductor material).

Note: Only resistance is power (energy) receiver in direct current

circuits.

ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS

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Electrical circuit elements.

Basic definitions
Branch – a set of connected elements with two points of connection (terminals)
which are carried outside; in the simplest case it is just one element
(resistor, battery)
Node – an element (terminal) connecting at least two branches
Loop (contour) – a collection of branches forming a closed path for the
passage of current; if a single branch is removed, no current flows
through the loop.
Electric circuit – a set of connected loops with one or more current passage
pathways.

Note: Possession of voltage source and closed circuit is a necessary and

sufficient condition to force the current flow (in practical circuits there is
also reciver).

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KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) – Kirchhoff's first law
(Kirchhoff's point rule or Kirchhoff's junction rule).
„The sum of the values of the current intensity entering a node is
equal to the sum of values of the current intensity leaving the
node”.
Conclusion: The algebraic sum of instantaneous values of current
intensity in an electric circuit node equals zero.

n I5 I1
 Ik = 0
k=2

I4 I2
I3 Example:
I2 + I 3 + I 4 = I 1 + I 5

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KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) – Kirchhoff's second law.
The sum of the electromotive forces (voltage sources) in any closed network
(exactly closed loop) is equivalent to the sum of the voltages at the resistances in
that loop.
Conclusion: The algebraic sum of values of source and receiver voltages in a loop
(contour) equals zero
Example: E1 − U1 − U2 + U3 − E4 + U4 + U5 + U6 − E5 = 0

n I2 R2
I3 R3
 Uk = 0
k=2 R1 U2
U1 U3
E1 − E4 − E5 = U1 + U2 − U3 − U4 − U5 − U6 E4
E1 − E4 − E5 = I1
= I1·R1 + I2·R2 − I3·R3 − I4·R4 − I5·(R5 + I4
R6) E1
U4
n m E5 U6 U5 R4
Ek = Ij·Rj
k=1 j=1
R6 I5 R5
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THE REAL SOURCE.

In the real source we can not extract generating elements and internal apparent
resistance. However, it can be distinguished two extreme operating states.
1) Open-circuit operation (no-load source).
Current does not flow I = 0.
I R =>
8

The real Voltage is maximum

source U G=0 U = UMAX = E
E – electromotive force .
2) Short-circuit operation (ideal).
Voltage equals zero U = 0.
R=0 Current is maximum
The real I
U I = IZ
source G =>
8

IZ – short-circuit current.

In the real source short-circuit current has a finite

value. In short-circuit operation, all energy source E
(E·IZ·t = RW·IZ2·t) is converted into heat on
RW =
IZ
the source internal resistance – RW.
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THE REAL SOURCE MODELS.

The linear real source can be presented in two ways. Alternatively,
we use:
ideal current source – IZ
electromotive force – E
or and internal conductance – GW
and internal resistance – RW (opposite of resistance)

RW I I
UW IW
1 1
E U R IZ GW=
RW U
R=
G
<=>

U = E – I · RW = I · R I = I Z – U · GW = U · G
I I U U
U=E– = I = IZ – =
GW G RW R
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SERIES CONNECTION OF RESISTANCE.

(the same current is flowing through each resistance !)
R1 R2 R3 RN-2
I

U1 U2 U3 UN-2
E U RN-1
UN N-1

RN
from Kirchhoff's second law
E = U1 + U2 + U3 +........+ UN-2 + UN-1 + UN
E = I·R1 + I·R2 + I·R3 +........+ I·RN-2 + I·RN-1 + I·RN
E = I· (R1 + R2 + R3 +........+ RN-2 + RN-1 + RN)

R = E = R1 + R2 + R3 +........+ RN-2 + RN-1 +RN

I
R – is called equivalent resistance

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PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RESISTANCE.

(the same voltage is applied to all branches !)
R0
a
I I1 I2 I3 IN-1 IN
U =IR
0 0
E U GN
G1 G2 G3 GN-1

b
from Kirchhoff's first law
I = I1 + I2 + I3 +........+ IN-1 + IN
U·G = U·G1 + U·G2 + U·G3 +........+ U·GN-1 + U·GN
E·G = E·(G1 + G2 + G3 +........+ GN-1 + GN)
G = G1 + G2 +G3 +........+ GN-1 + GN
G – is called equivalent conductance

1 1 1 1
G = R = R + R + ....... + R
1 2 N

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PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RESISTANCE.

(detailed examples)

I I1 I2 I I1 I2 I3
E E
R1 R2 R1 R2 R3

from Kirchhoff's first law

I = I1 + I2 I = I1 + I2 + I3
E E E E E E + E
R
= R + R R
= R1
+
R2
1 2 R3
1 1 1 1 1 1 + 1
R
= R + R R
= R1
+
R2
1 2 R3
two resistors in parallel three resistors in parallel

R1· R2 R1·R2·R3
R= R = R ·R + R ·R + R ·R
R1 + R2 1 2 1 3 2 3

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MIXED CONNECTION (SERIES–PARALLEL) OF RESISTANCE

- example.
R4

R1 R3 R5

R2

Question : What is the equivalent resistance value in presented circuit?

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MIXED CONNECTION (SERIES–PARALLEL) OF RESISTANCE

- example.
I4 R4

R1 I3 R3 I5 R5

I1
I2 R2

U
Еhe current equations for nodes from Kirchhoff's first law

I 1 = I 4 + I3 + I2 I4 + I3 = I5 I5 + I2 = I 1

Conclusion: There is no resistance in series connection

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MIXED CONNECTION (SERIES–PARALLEL) OF RESISTANCE

- example.
I4 R4

U4
R1 I3 R3 I5 R5

U1 U3 = U4 U5
I1
I2 R2

U2
U
Еhe voltage equations for loops from Kirchhoff's second law
U1 + U4 + U5 = U
U3 = U4 U3 + U5 = U2
U1 + U3 + U5 = U
U1 + U2 = U
Conclusion : R3 is connected in parallel with R4

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MIXED CONNECTION (SERIES–PARALLEL) OF RESISTANCE example of calculating

Mieszane łączenie rezystancji (przykład)equivalent resistance.
I R4 I1 R1 R345 I5=I3+I4
4

I1 R1 I3 R3 U4 I5 R5 U1
I2 R2 U3+U5=U4+U5=U2

U2
U1
I2 R2 U3=U4 U5
U

U
U2
R345·R2 (RR +·RR 3
3 4
4
+R5 ) ·R 2

R34 =
R3·R4
R3 + R4
R2345= R +R
345 2 = R3·R4
R3 + R4 +R5+R2
I1 R1 R34 I5=I3+I4 R5
I1 R1 R34 I5=I3+I4 R5 I11 R11 R2345
2345
I55+I22=I33+I44+I22=I11
U1
I2 R2 U 3 = U4 U5
U U33+U55=U44+U55=U22
U1
I2 R2 U3= U4 U5 U11
U2 U
U
U
U 2
U
R3·R4 R345·R2 (RR +·RR
3
3 4
4
+R5 ) ·R 2

R345 = R34 + R5 = R3 + R4 + R5 R12345= R +R + R1

345 2 = R3·R4
+ R1
R3 + R4 +R5+R2
I1 R1 R345 I5=I3+I4
I1=I5+I2=I3+I4+I2 R12345
U1 R2 U3+U5=U4+U5=U2
I2 U2=U1+U2=U1+U3+U5=U1+U4+U5
U2 U
U
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How are connected resistances in the figure below?

R1 R2 R3 R4

E R5

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R1 R2 R3 R4

E R5

Parallel !!!

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How are connected resistances in the figure below?

R1 R2 R3

E R4
R7 R6 R5

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Singel node

R1 R2 R3

E R4
R7 R6 R5

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R1 R2 R3

R4
R7 R6 R5

Also parallel !!!

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ANY CONNECTION OF RESISTANCE.

How are connected resistances in the figure below?

R1 R2

R5

R3 R4
R6

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ANY CONNECTION OF RESISTANCE.

I1 R1 I2 R2
I5
U1 U2
U5 R5
U3 U4

I3 R3 I4 R4
R6

I6 U6
E
In the circuit presented above, resistors are neither in series nor in parallel.

In order to determine equivalent resistance, the circuit should be transfigured.

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Application examples of direct

current (DC) electric circuits.

Direct current
BRIDGES

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DC BRIDGE
UZ ·(RX·R4 – R2·R3)
ID =
RX·R2·(R3+R4) + (RX+R2)[R3·R4+ RD·(R3+R4)]

RX R2
ID

RD
R3 R4
The bridge is balanced
ID = 0
that is RX·R4 = R2·R3
UZ

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Balanced measuring bridge.

Bridge balance condition
IX RX
I2 R2 I5 = 0  U5 = 0
UX IX + I5 = I2  IX = I2
I5
measured U2 I3 = I5 + I4  I3 = I4
resistor variable
resistor U3–UX+U5=0  UX=U3
current potentiometer
detector U5 IX·RX = I3·R3
R5
U4 U4–U5–U2=0  U4=U2
U3
I4·R4 = I2·R2  I4 = I2·R2 /R4
I3 R3 I4 R4 I4 = I3  I3 = I2·R2 /R4
R6
IX·RX = I2·R2·R3/R4
I6 U6 IX = I2  I2·RX = I2·R2 R3/R4
E6
RX ·R4 = R2 ·R3
RX = (R3/R4)·(R2) RX = (R3/R4)·(R2)

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Configurations
of electrical
circuits

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Configurations of electrical circuits.

Configurations of electrical circuits are determined by listing the
number of loops, branches and nodes and the configuration of
them .
1) Single loop circuits.

R1 I
E – U1 – U2 = 0
U1 U2 = E – I · R1 = I · R2
E U2 R2 E
I=
R1 + R2

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2) Two loop circuits (2 – nodes, 3 – branches).

Forcing (EMF) occurs in one branch

A
Kirchhoff's current law for node A
I1 = I 2 + I3
I1 I2 I3 Kirchhoff's current law for node B
I2 + I 3 = I1
U1 R1 U2 R2 U3 R3 identity equation !!!

E1 Kirchhoff's voltage law (for 3 loops)

E1 = I1·R1 + I2·R2
E1 = I1·R1 + I3·R3
B
I2·R2 = I3·R3
NOTE !!!
dependent system of equations

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2) Two loop circuits (2 – nodes, 3 – branches).

A Kirchhoff's current law for node A

I1 = I 2 + I3
Kirchhoff's current law for node B
I1 I2 I3
I2 + I 3 = I1
identity equation !!!
U1 R1 U2 R2 U3 R3
Kirchhoff's voltage law (for 3 loops)

E1 E2 E3 E1 – U1 – U2 – E2 = 0
E1 – E2 = I1·R1 + I2·R2

B E1 – U1 – U3 – E3 = 0
E1 – E3 = I1·R1 + I3·R3

NOTE !!! E2 + U2 – U3 – E3 = 0
dependent system of equations E2 – E3 = I3·R3 – I2·R2

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3) Three loop circuits (4 – nodes, 6 – branches). Chain type.

E5 U5
A I5 C

I1 I2 R5 I3 I4

U1 R1 U2 R2 U3 R3 U4 R4

E1 E2 R6 E3 E4

B I6 D
U6 E6

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3) Three loop circuits (4 – nodes, 6 – branches). Chain type.

E5 U5
A I5 C Kirchhoff's current law
(node A) I1 = I2 + I5
I1 I2 R5 I3 I4
(node B) I2 + I6 = I1
U1 R1 U2 R2 U3 R3 U4 R4 (node C) I5 = I3 + I4
(node D) I3 + I4 = I6
E1 E2 R6 E3 E4 L=> I1+I2+I6+I5+I3+I4=
=I2+I5+I1+I3+I4+I6 =>P
B I6 D
U6 E6

Kirchhoff's voltage law

E1 – I1·R1 – I2·R2 – E2 = 0
E2 + I2·R2 + E5 – I5·R5 – I3·R3 – E3 + E6 – I6·R6 = 0
E3 + I3·R3 – I4·R4 – E4 = 0
E1 – I1·R1 + E5 – I5·R5 – I3·R3 – E3 + E6 – I6·R6 = 0
E2 + I2·R2 + E5 – I5·R5 – I4·R4 – E4 + E6 – I6·R6 = 0
E1 – I1·R1 + E5 – I5·R5 – I4·R4 – E4 + E6 – I6·R6 = 0

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4) Four loop circuits are in seven configurations. Chain type.

A E6 C E7
U6 I6 U7 I7 E

I1 I2 R6 I3 R7 I4 I5

U1 R1 U2 R2 U3 R3 U3 R4 U4 R5

E1 E2 R9 E3 R8 E4 E5

B I9 I8 U8 F
U9 E9 E8
D

Questions:
1) How many (and which) equations can be written?
2) How many and which equations must be written?

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Analysis of electrical circuits.

For the analysis of electrical circuits, resistance of all branches (loads) and
operating force (voltage source) are usually given. Whereas there are looking for
current intensity of the loads and voltage drop in each branch.

In active, linear, branched circuit which containing W – nodes

and G – branches we can write:

N = W ─ 1 independent equations for nodes

from Kirchhoff's current law
and
K = G ─ (W ─ 1) independent equations for loops
K = G ─ N from Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Note !!!: Do not write more equations than those specified above
because we obtain dependent system of equations.

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THEVENIN’S and NORTON’S

THEOREMS

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Thevenin’s theorem
If in any multi-loop electric network (branched, active, linear) we are interested
in values of current parameters (current intensity, voltage, power) in one
particular branch (between any two singled terminals), we can use Thevenin’s
theorem (and/or Norton’s): „Any linear electrical network with voltage and
current sources and resistances can be replaced at terminals A-B by an
equivalent voltage source UT in series connection with an equivalent resistance
RT (active two-terminal circuit).”
In Norton’s theorem it will be equivalent current source IN in parallel
connection with an equivalent resistance RN.

Elecrtic circuit A RT
(active, linear  UT  IN RN
branched)

B
Thevenin’s theorem is particularly useful in electrical power engineering to determine the
parameters of equivalent generator

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PARAMETERS OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

Elecrtic circuit A RT
(active, linear
branched)
 UT  IN RN

Source voltage – UT - no-load (open circuit) voltage on AB terminals.

Source current intensity – IN - current intensity flowing between
terminals A and B in short-circuit state (short-circuit current).
Resistance – RT = RN = RW = UT – circuit internal resistance
IN
(the ratio of no-load voltage to short-circuit current).

Resistance – RT = RN = RZAST – can also be calculated as equivalent

resistance obtained at terminals AB of the circuit with all its current
sources open circuited and all its voltage sources short circuited.

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Example.
At terminals AB of the electric network were measured:
No-load voltage UABJ = 240V,
Short-circuit current IABZ = 30A.
Calculate current intensity value IR which will flow through
resistance R = 7, connected between terminals AB of the circuit.
A
ELECRTIC
CIRCUIT I
(active, linear U R
branched).

B
RT IR UT = UABJ = 240V.
RT = UABJ/IABZ = 240V/30A = 8.

UT
UT UR R IR = = 240V/(8+7) = 16A
RT + R

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Example: Calculate current value flowing through

resistance R1 using the Thevenin’s method.
R1 R2

R5

R3 R4

E
R1 = 4,5 R2 = 3,0 R3 = 4,0 R4 = 4,0 R5 = 1,0  = 24V.

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The order of calculations:

Step I: Open and remove the load branch in the network, and mark the letters A and B on
the two terminals.
Step II: Determine Thevenin’s equivalent voltage UT.
Step III (first way): Determine the short-circuit current – IZ and resistance – RT
(RT=UT/IZ)
Step III (second way): Determine the equivalent resistance – R = RT
(voltage source should be replaced by a short circuit, and a current source should be
replaced by an open circuit)
Step IV: Connect the load branch to A and B terminals of the equivalent circuit.

R1 = 4,5 B R2 = 3,0

A UT
R5 = 1,0 A
R1 = 4,5

RT
R3 = 4,0 R4 = 4,0 UT

B
E = 24,0V
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EXAMPLE
Calculation of UT

B R2 = 3,0
I5 E
A UT I=
R5 = 1,0 (R5 + R2)·R4
U3 U5 U4
R3 + R5 + R2 + R4
I
24V
R3 = 4,0 R4 = 4,0 I= = 4A
(1+3)·4
4+
1+3+4 

E = 24,0V U3 = I·R3 = 4A·4 = 16V

U4 = E-U3 = 24V - 16V = 8V
U4 8V
I5 = = (1+3)Ω = 2A
UT = 18V R5 + R 2
U5 = I5·R5 = 2A·1 = 2V
UT = U3 +U5 = 16V + 2V = 18V

47

EXAMPLE
RT B R2 = 3,0
Calculation of RT
A
R5 = 1,0

R3 = 4,0 R4 = 4,0

B R2 = 3,0 R2 = 3,0
B R2 = 3,0 B

R5 = 1,0
R5 = 1,0

R4 = 4,0 A R34 = 2,0 R345 = 3,0

A A
R3 = 4,0
RT = 1,5

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EXAMPLE
Calculation of I1

RT A I1
UT = 18V.
RT = 1,5.
UT UR R1

UT
I1 = = 18V/(1,5+4,5) = 3A
RT + R1

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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM.
For linear electric circuits the equivalent force is the algebraic sum of component
forces. E1 E1

I1 I2 I11 I12 I21 I22

R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
I3 I13 I23
E2 E2
R4 R4 R4

R3 R3 R3
= +

I1 = I1 1 + I2 1
I2 = I1 2 + I2 2
I3 = I1 3 + I2 3
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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM.
Currents distribution at electromotive force E1.

E
E1
A I11 = R 1
X

I11
UAB I12 (R3 + R4)·R2
RX = R1 + R + R + R
2 3 4
R1 R2
I13 UAB = E1 − I11·R1
B
R4 U
I12 = RAB
2
R3
U
I13 = R +ABR
3 4

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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM.
Currents distribution at electromotive force E2.

E
I23 = R2
A Y

I21 I22 R1 · R2
UAB RY = R3 + R4 + R + R
1 2
R1 R2
UAB = − E2 + I23·(R3 + R4)
I23
E2 B − UAB
R4 I21 = R1
R3
U
I22 = RAB
2

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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM.
Currents distribution at electromotive forces (E1 and E2).

E1

I1 I2

R1 R2
I1 = I1 1 + I2 1
I3
I2 = I1 2 + I2 2
E2
R4 I3 = I1 3 + I2 3
R3

53

Parallel connection of active branches (parallel operation of sources).

E1 − I1·R1 + I2·R2 − E2 = 0
I1 I2 E1 − E2 = I1·R1 − I2·R2
I I = I1 + I2
U1 R1 U2 R2 E1 − E2 = I1·R1 − (I − I1)·R2
U R
E1 − E2 = (I − I2)·R1 − I2·R2
E1 E2
(E1 − E2) + I·R2 = I1·(R1 + R2)
I·R1 − (E1 − E2) = I2(R1 + R2)

I · R2 (E − E )
I1 =
(R1 + R2)
+ (R1 + R2 )  I1 = IS1 + IW
1 2
I = I1 + I2 = IS1 + IS2
I · R1 (E1 − E2)
I2 =
(R1 + R2)
+ (R1 + R2)
 I2 = IS2 − IW

IS1; IS2 - component currents

IW - circulating current

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(E1 − E2)
IW =
IW IW (R1 + R2)
Circulating current IW flows only if E1  E2
U1 R1 U2 R2 If E1 = E2 than IW = 0
The power generated by voltage
E1 E2 sources are divided into:
• useful power consumed by the receiver
P = R·I2 = R·(IS1 + IS2)2 = R·(I1 + I2)2

• power dissipated in internal resistances of voltage sources

P = R1·(IS1 + IW)2 + R2·(IS2 − IW)2

R1·R2 R1·R2
P = (IS1 + IS2)2 + IW2·(R1 + R2) = I2 + IW2·(R1 + R2)
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2

P = PK + PW
R1·R2
PK = I2 – power of necessary losses occur even when E1 = E2
R 1 + R2
PW = IW2·(R1 + R2) – power of additional losses occurs because of E1  E2
55

Graphical representation of linear circuit.

RW u Current–voltage characteristic

I=0 E
UW = 0
U=E

E R=∞ RW
G=0
Straight line graph of
internal resistance RW
RW i
U=0
I=0 IZ
UW I
Current–voltage characteristic
E U R u
G E RW
U
RW

UW = E IZ UW
i
U=0

E R=0
I=0 I IZ
G=∞ Straight line graph
G=0 of load u = E − i·RW R=0

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Matching between a load and a source.

In matching state receiver takes maximum power from the source.
RW
Power consumed by the receiver
UW I E2
PO = I2·R = ·R
PO (RW + R)2
E U R dPO
If there is a maximum than: =0
dR

(RW+R)2 − 2(RW+R)·R RW+R − 2·R RW − R

E2 (RW+R)4
= E2 (R + R)3 = E2 (R + R)3 = 0
W W

Maximum there is for the condition : R = RW

E2 · RW E2
POmax = (RW + RW)2
= 4 · RW

57

Graphical representation of linear circuit. Power characteristic.

RW

UW = 0 I=0
U=E

P= 0 p E2
E R=∞ PMAX = 4 · R
W
G=0
RW

UW I
P
E U R Parabolic power
G curve of load PO
i
RW
I=0 R = RW IZ
IZ G=0 G = GW R=0
UW = E
U=0

P= 0
E
R=0
G=∞

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NON-LINEAR
ELECRTIC
CIRCUIT

59

NON-LINEAR ELECRTIC CIRCUIT

An electric circuit including at least one nonlinear element is referred to as a
nonlinear circuit.
If current-voltage curve of nonlinear elements is given as a function UN = f (IN)
than solutions can be searched for analytical.

Example UN = A· IN
In parallel connection
I IL IN I = IL + IN
U IN = (U/A)2
UL RL UN RN
I = U/RL + (U/A)2

In series connection
RL

I U = UL + U N
UL
(U − I· RL)2 = I·A2
U UN RN
I2· RL2−I·(2·U·RL+A2)+U2 = 0
=  etc.

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NON-LINEAR ELECRTIC CIRCUIT

Jeżeli charakterystyka
If current-voltage prądowo-napięciowa
curve of nonlinear elements is givenelementu
as a
nieliniowego U =f(I ) dana jest doświadczalnie to for
function UN N= f (INN) than solutions can be searched rozwiązania
graphically,
można poszukiwać
drawing straightgraficznie.
line graph of load.

RL u
E
I UL RN
UL
UN=f(IN)
E UN RN
UN
u = E − i·RL

I IZ i
R=0

61

NON-LINEAR ELECRTIC CIRCUIT

Połączenie
Mixed connection mieszane z elementem
with non-linear elements. nieliniowym.

R1

I1 I2 IN
U1
E U2 R2 UN RN

U2 = UN R2 RN

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NON-LINEAR ELECRTIC CIRCUIT

Mixed connection with non-linear elements. The curve design of the
parallel connection.
u
R2 UN=f(IN)
RN
RN║R2

UN=U2=f(IN+I2)

63

NON-LINEAR ELECRTIC CIRCUIT

Mixed connection with non-linear elements. Graphic solution.

u
E R2
RN

RN║R2
U1

U2=UN=E−I1·R1

U2

IN I2 I1 i

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NON-LINEAR ELECRTIC CIRCUIT

Strongly non-linear elements are used to voltage and current stabilization.

Elementy nieliniowe wykorzystywane są do stabilizacji napięć i prądów.

Voltage stabilizer – Current stabilizer –
it stabilize the output voltage it stabilize the output current
Stabilizator napięcia – Stabilizator prądu –
despite the current changes
utrzymuje stałą wartość napięcia despite the voltage changes
utrzymuje stałą wartość natężenia
pomimo zmian natężenia prądu prądu pomimo zmian napięcia.

u u
US U

I IS
i i

65

CAPACITOR,
INDUCTOR,
CHOKE
in DC electrical circuits.

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Capacitor.
Capacitor contains two electrical conductors (plates) separated
by a dielectric (insulator).
Capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to
store energy in an electric field (collects the electrical charges –
Q). It is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance - C,
measured in farads – [F] and derived units [mF], [F], [nF], [pF].
The value of capacitance – C is determined as the ratio of the
electric charge – Q on each conductor to the potential difference –
U between them.

Q
C=  C·U=Q
U
[C] [A·s]
[F] = [V] =
[V]
= [ s ] = [S·s]

67

Capacitance of a capacitor depends on its design features.

Eg. for the flat capacitor:

S
d ·S
C=
d

ε - (absolute) permittivity of a medium [Fm]
n
For capacitors in parallel (!) C =  Ck
k=1
n
1 1
For capacitors in series (!) = C
C k=1 K

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Capacitor in DC electrical circuit.

If a capacitor is placed in a DC circuit then, as soon as its plates have
charged up (in steady state), the capacitor effectively behaves like a break in
the circuit (G = 0).
At the moment of first connecting the capacitor, charging current of a
capacitor – i flows in circuit, which exponentially decay to zero with a time
constant –  dependent on the circuit parameter values that is resistance – R
and capacitance – C.
=R·C
t0 u, i E
R i(t)
E
i R
uC C uC(t)
E

t0  t
69

t0 u, i E
R i(t)

E
i R
uC C uC(t)
E duC
i = C·
dt
t0  t
for t > t0 => from KVL => E − R·i − uC = 0 => R·i + uC = E
dQ d(C·uC) duC duC
R· + uC = R· + uC = R·C · =E
dt dt dt + u C = dt + uC
·
·uC’ + uC = E => (first-order differential equation of type: ay’ + y = C )
Solution:
uC(t) = E · ( 1 − exp − t ) = E · ( 1 − exp − t )
 RC
−t )
du d (1−exp
i(t) = C· dtC = C·E· RC = E ·exp(− t )
dt R RC

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Magnetic field.
It was experimentally verified (Oersted's experiment), that an electric current
generates a magnetic field encircling it. Magnetic field lines operate in the
plane perpendicular to the conductive wire. The magnetic field is described by
magnetic induction vector – B expressed in teslas [T]. The absolute value of
magnetic induction vector is determined by forces – F acting on the wire (in
which current flows) placed in a magnetic field.

F=I·(BХℓ)
B
In the case of perpendicular vectors:
B F
B = I·ℓ

[N] [J] [W·s] [V·s] [Wb]

[T]= [A·m] = [A·m2] = [A·m2 = [m2] = [m2]
]

71

If we coiled the wire in repeating loops we receive solenoid – coil.

l The value of magnetic induction in the axis
of the coil:

B
·I·
 B=
z
z – l
number of turns,
I l – length of selenoid,
S  – absolute permeability [Hm]
Magnetic flux–  passing through any surface – S is calculated as follows:

=  B · dS
S
In the case of constant value of magnetic induction vector and perpendicular to
the surface

=B·S

[V·s]
[Wb] (weber) = [T]·[m2] = ·[m2] = [V·s] (volt second)
[m2]
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In the case of magnetic flux produced in coil

passing through all turns of coil (without leakage flux) than
this flux is called linked flux –  and is determined from the
relation:
=z·
The change of linked flux produces self-induction
electromotive force – uL (self-induction emf).
A relative movement between a conductor and a magnetic
field (or a changing current through the conductor), an
induced voltage (uL) or induced emf (eL) and also an induced
current (i) will be produced. The polarity of the induced emf
is always opposite to the change of the original current
(Lenz's law: i      uL   i  ).
Self-induction electromotive force is the voltage drop
across the inductor (on the inductive reactance).
73

Inductor. Choke .
A parameter that characterizes the ability of inductor or choke (coil with
magnetic core) to produce self-induction emf is self inductance – L measured in
henries [H] and derived units [mH], [H]. The value of self inductance – L is
determined as the ratio of the linked flux –  to the current – I which produce
that flux.
z·Φ
L= Ψ = [V·s]
[H] = [A] = [·s]
[s]
I I [S]
=
Self inductance depends only on the design features of inductor or choke .
l
z· z · B· S z··z·I·
L= I = I
=S
I·l
·z2·S
L= l
 z S

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Inductor or choke in DC electrical circuit.

If a inductor is placed in a DC circuit (in steady state) the ideal inductor
(without resistance R = 0) or choke is equivalent to a short circuit. Practically,
there is a small short-circuit resistance depends on the material used in the inductor or
choke wire.
At the moment of first connecting the inductor or choke to the circuit, the
transient voltage - uL appears on inductor, which exponentially decay to zero
with a time constant –  dependent on the circuit parameter values that is
resistance – R and inductance – L.
L
= R
t0 E
u, i
uL(t)
E
i R
R
uL L i(t)
E

t0  t
75

u, i E
t0 uL(t)
E
i R R
uL i(t)
L
E di
uL = L·
dt
t0  t

for t > t0 => from (KVL) => E − R·i − uL = 0 => R·i + uL = E

dΨ d(L·i) di L di E
R·i + = R·i + = R·i + L· = E <=> +i=
dt dt dt R dt R
·i’ + i = IZ => (first-order differential equation of type : ay’ + y = C )

Solution:
i(t) = E ( 1 − exp − t ) = E ( 1 − exp − tR )
R  R L
uL(t) = L· di = E·exp(− tR )
dt L

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