PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES

IN COMPUTING

Lecture Notes

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Why a class on Ethics?
Technology can be a blessing and a curse…

Fire is a prime example of a technology that kicked off civilization, yet

no doubt with a down side.
Many people have died from fire, but countless many people lived long
productive lives because society had fire….

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 What other technologies can we
compare computers to?
• Trains  Explosives

• Planes  Insecticides

• Automobiles  Drugs….

• Guns

All have their Pros & Cons Can you list some of them?

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Benefits of Computer Technology
• Medical • Complex Systems
that require
• Commerce computers

• Automation • Communication

• List some more….

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What about the down side
• Loss of Privacy

• Theft of Intellectual Property

• Computer Errors

• List more of the negatives …

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What is ethics?
• Derived from the Greek word “ethos”, which means “custom”,
“habit”, and “way of living”
• Ethics is concerned with human conduct, i.e., behavior of
individuals in society
• Ethics is a system of morals of a particular person, religion or a
group
• Moral: means dealing with, or capable of, distinguishing
between right and wrong, and between just and unjust

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Ethics con’t--
• According to the Webster Dictionary, ethics is the system or code of morals of a
particular person, religion, group, or profession.
• Ethics are subject to personal interpretation. Two people may not view the
same ethical issue the same way.
• e.g, Winner may think that Musa behaviour is unethical, but Arnold may not think
that Musa is acting unethical in anyway.

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 Professional Ethics:
➢Professional Ethics: concerns one's conduct of behavior and practice when
carrying out professional work, e.g., consulting, researching, teaching, treating
patients and writing.

➢Professional Ethics must take into account:

➢Relations between professionals and clients
➢Relation between profession and society
➢Relations among professionals
➢Relations between employee and employer
➢Specialized technical details of the profession

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✓A computing professional must understand
✓Cultural, social, legal, and ethical issues in computing
✓Responsibility and possible consequences of failure

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 Computer Ethics (1)
• Computer ethics defined as the application of classical ethical
principles to the use of computer technology
• Special Responsibilities Facing Computer Professionals and
Users include;
• Maintaining relationships with and responsibilities toward customers, clients, coworkers,
employees, and employers.
• Making critical decisions that have significant consequences for many people.
• Determining how to manage, select, or use computers in a professional setting.

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Computer Ethics (2)
✓ In general, behaving Ethically Includes:
✓ Being honest.
✓ Keeping promises.
✓ Doing your job well.
✓ Not stealing.
✓ Scope in computing : communications networks which brings the world together
i.e. Internet and WWW.
✓ Anonymity: beneficial but creates problems of integrity.

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Computer Ethics (3)
✓Aspects of computer ethics:
✓Analysis of the nature of problems related to the social impact of computers
✓Formulation and justification of policies needed to manage computer
technology

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ETHICS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
The growth of the Internet, the ability to capture and store vast amounts of personal data, and greater reliance on
information systems in all aspects of life have increased the risk that information technology will be used
unethically.
In the midst of the many IT breakthroughs in recent years, the importance of ethics and human values
has been underemphasized with a range of consequences.

Here are some examples that raise public concern about the ethical use of information technology:

➢ Many employees have their email and Internet access monitored while at work, as employers struggle to balance their need to manage
important company assets and work time with employees’ desire for privacy and self direction

➢ Millions of people have downloaded music and movies at no charge and in apparent violation of copyright laws at tremendous expense to the
owners of those copyrights.

➢ Organizations contact millions of people worldwide through unsolicited email (spam) as an extremely low-cost marketing approach.

➢ Hackers break into databases of financial and retail institutions to steal customer information, then use it to commit identity theft opening
new accounts and charging purchases to unsuspecting victims.

➢ Students around the world have been caught downloading material from the Web and plagiarizing content for their term papers.

➢ Web sites plant cookies or spyware on visitors’ hard drives to track their online purchases and activities.
 Ethics in Information Systems
Ethics in information systems is a critical aspect of ensuring that technology is used responsibly and ethically. It involves
considering the moral implications of how information systems are designed, implemented, and used, as well as the impact
they have on individuals, organizations, and society as a whole.
 Principles of ethics in information systems
➢ Privacy: Protecting the privacy of individuals' personal information and ensuring that data is collected,
stored, and used in accordance with relevant laws and ethical standards.

➢ Security: Safeguarding information systems and data from unauthorized access, theft, or manipulation to
prevent harm to individuals or organizations.

➢ Transparency: Providing clear and understandable information about how information systems work, what
data is being collected and why, and how it will be used.

➢ Accountability: Holding individuals and organizations responsible for their actions and the consequences of
using information systems in unethical or harmful ways.
➢ Fairness: Ensuring that information systems are designed and used in a way that promotes fairness and equal
treatment for all individuals, regardless of factors such as race, gender, or socioeconomic status.

➢ Integrity: Maintaining the integrity and accuracy of information systems and data, and preventing the spread
of misinformation or false information.

➢ Accessibility: Ensuring that information systems are accessible to all individuals, including those with
disabilities, and that technology is not used in ways that create barriers to access.
 Professionalism
A profession typically refers to a vocation or career that requires specialized training, education, skills, and
often involves adherence to a specific code of ethics or standards of conduct. Professions are distinguished by
their focus on providing specialized services or expertise to others, often in fields such as healthcare, law,
engineering, education, accounting, and many others.

A professional is a member of a profession or any person who works in a specified professional activity. The term also
describes the standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and
skills necessary to perform their specific role within that profession

IT professionals. This encompass a wide range of roles and responsibilities within the field of information technology. They
are skilled individuals who work with computers, networks, software, hardware, and various other technologies to ensure the
efficient operation of IT systems. These professionals may specialize in areas such as network administration, cybersecurity,
software development, database management, IT support, and more. Their expertise is crucial for organizations to effectively
utilize technology to achieve their goals and maintain competitiveness in today's digital world.
Professionalism. This encompasses a set of behaviors, attitudes, and qualities that individuals exhibit in their work
environment. It involves demonstrating integrity, competence, reliability, respect, and accountability in all interactions and
tasks related to one's profession

IT professionalism

IT professionalism refers specifically to the application of professional standards, behaviors, and ethics within the field of
information technology. IT professionals are expected to adhere to high standards of conduct and expertise as they work with
sensitive data, critical systems, and evolving technologies
Ethical vs. Legal Issues
✓Ethical issues are not legal issues.

✓Legal issues have documented definitions (laws) with specific consequences if

the laws are broken.

✓ Ethical issues are guidelines set by a specific group of people with no real
documented definitions of what is right and what is wrong.

✓ Individuals can choose if they wish to follow the ethical guidelines or not.

✓There is no choice on following the Law.

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 Law vs. Ethics
LAW Ethics
1. Described by formal written documents 1. Described by unwritten principles

2. Interpreted by courts 2. Interpreted by each individual

3. Established by legislatures representing all 3. Presented by philosophers, religions,

people professional groups, elders..

4. Applicable to everyone 4. Personal choice

5. Priority determined by laws if two laws 5. Priority determined by an individual if two

conflict principles conflict

6. Court is final arbiter for right 6. No external arbiter

7. Enforceable by police and courts 7. Limited enforcement –usually the “court

of public opinion”

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Examples of Legal Issues in computing
➢Criminal statures
➢Federal and state regulations
➢ Commonly accepted professional practices
➢ Variations among countries and regions
➢Un authorized access
➢Sabotage and destruction of data
➢ Theft of commercial software

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 The Three Ethical Decision Theories.

✓These theories explain how people make ethical

decisions, and are guidelines to how individuals look
at an ethical issue and make a decision.

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 Utilitarianism Theory
✓Considers the ethical issue and its relationship to
individuals
✓ Makes a decision based on what benefits the most people
✓ "The greater good of the most people".

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Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that emphasizes the maximization of overall happiness or
utility as the basis for moral decision-making. Developed by philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill, utilitarianism posits that the right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness
for the greatest number of people.

Key principles of utilitarianism include

➢ Consequentialism: Utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of actions rather than on inherent qualities of
actions themselves. The moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome.

➢ Utility: Utility refers to the overall happiness, pleasure, or well-being produced by an action. Utilitarianism
seeks to maximize utility and minimize suffering.
➢ Greatest Happiness Principle: The core principle of utilitarianism, often attributed to Jeremy Bentham, is the "greatest
happiness principle." This principle holds that an action is morally right if it produces the greatest amount of happiness for
the greatest number of people affected by the action.

➢ Quantitative and Qualitative Considerations: Utilitarianism considers both the quantity and quality of happiness
produced by an action. It takes into account factors such as intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and
extent when evaluating consequences.

➢ Impartiality: Utilitarianism is impartial and does not prioritize the interests of any particular individual or group. All
individuals' happiness is considered equally when assessing the morality of actions.
Impact of Utilitarianism theory
➢ Ethical Decision-Making: Utilitarianism provides a framework for evaluating the morality of actions based on their
consequences. Individuals may apply utilitarian principles to their daily decision-making processes, considering the
potential outcomes and striving to maximize overall happiness or utility.

➢ Public Policy: Utilitarianism can inform public policy decisions by emphasizing outcomes that promote the greatest good
for the greatest number of people. Policymakers may use utilitarian reasoning to justify measures aimed at improving
public health, safety, education, and welfare.

➢ Economics: Utilitarian principles are often incorporated into economic theories and models. Concepts such as cost-
benefit analysis, which weigh the costs and benefits of alternative courses of action, reflect utilitarian considerations of
maximizing utility.
➢ Legal and Justice Systems: Utilitarianism may influence legal and justice systems by guiding judgments about the
allocation of resources, punishment for crimes, and the balancing of individual rights with societal interests. However, there
may be tensions between utilitarian principles and principles of justice and fairness.

➢ Environmental Ethics: Utilitarianism can be applied to environmental ethics by considering the consequences of
human actions on ecosystems and non-human beings. Environmental policies and practices may be evaluated based on
their overall impact on biodiversity, ecosystem services, and the well-being of future generations.

➢ Healthcare Ethics: In healthcare ethics, utilitarianism may be used to guide decisions about resource allocation, medical
treatments, and public health interventions. Ethical dilemmas, such as triage during emergencies or organ allocation for
transplants, may be approached from a utilitarian perspective.

➢ Business Ethics: Utilitarianism may influence business ethics by encouraging companies to consider the impacts of their
decisions on stakeholders, including employees, customers, shareholders, and the community. Corporate social
responsibility initiatives and sustainability efforts may be motivated by utilitarian concerns for maximizing long-term
welfare.
 Pluralism Theory
✓Believes there are two options in an ethical issue, right and wrong decisions
✓Pluralism stresses each person has a decision-making duty, must make ethical
decisions based on that duty, and never break away from the decision-making
duty.
✓ All decisions are clear-cut, black and white
✓E.g. No one should ever lie.

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 Rights-based Theory

✓All people have rights, and those rights must be respected

✓Decisions are based on respecting individual rights
✓E.g. you should never read a person’s email because it violates a
person’s rights to privacy, and resist the temptation.

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(Possible exam questions)

- What are ethics?

- Why are ethical questions so difficult to answer?

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Instructions for Assignment one
✓In groups of Two attempt the following questions and hand in on Tuesday 7th
March, 2024 before 2:00pm. Late submission will lead to loss of marks. Avoid
copy and paste, any work that raises suspicions of copying will be cancelled.
Include the references at the end of your work (APA).

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Assignment one
1.Give two definitions of Professional Ethics according to different
scholars. (2 marks)
2. Explain the three fundamental tenets of ethics. i.e. Responsibility,
Accountability, and Liability.(6 marks)
3.Discuss the major five objectives of codes of ethics?.(10 marks)
4.Giving examples explain the six types of computer abuses that
employees commit in their work places. (12 marks)

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 Bodies governing Ethical Issues in
Computing
Individual assignment

✓Read and make notes on the existing bodies that govern ethical issues
✓What are some examples of ethical issues concerning the use of
computers?

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• THANK YOU.

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Aspects and implications of Employing
Information Systems Personnel
Information systems (IS) are a crucial component of modern organizations, encompassing the hardware,
software, data, processes, and people that work together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to
support decision-making and organizational activities. Information systems play a vital role in helping
organizations achieve their goals, improve efficiency, and maintain a competitive advantage in today's digital
economy.
Information systems personnel refer to individuals who work in various roles related to the design,
development, implementation, maintenance, and support of information systems within organizations. These
professionals possess a range of skills and expertise in areas such as technology, data management, software
development, cybersecurity, and project management.
Some common roles within information systems personnel include:

✓ Systems Analyst: Responsible for analyzing business requirements and designing information systems
solutions to meet organizational needs. Systems analysts work closely with stakeholders to understand their
requirements, assess existing systems, and propose enhancements or new solutions.

✓ Database Administrator (DBA): Manages databases that store and organize data for efficient retrieval and
manipulation. DBAs are responsible for ensuring the security, integrity, and performance of databases, as well
as implementing backup and recovery procedures.

✓ Network Administrator: Manages computer networks within an organization, including LANs, WANs, and
intranets. Network administrators are responsible for configuring network devices, monitoring network
performance, and troubleshooting network issues to ensure connectivity and reliability.

✓ Software Developer/Programmer: Designs, develops, and maintains software applications and systems to
support organizational operations. Software developers write code, test applications, and debug issues to
ensure functionality and usability.
✓ IT Support Specialist/Help Desk Technician: Provides technical support and assistance to users
experiencing hardware, software, or network issues. IT support specialists diagnose problems, troubleshoot
solutions, and escalate complex issues to higher-level support teams if needed.

✓ Cybersecurity Analyst: Protects organizational information systems from cyber threats and security
breaches. Cybersecurity analysts monitor network traffic, conduct vulnerability assessments, and implement
security measures to prevent unauthorized access and data breaches.

✓ Project Manager: Oversees the planning, execution, and monitoring of information systems projects to
ensure they are completed on time, within budget, and according to specifications. Project managers
coordinate resources, manage risks, and communicate project status to stakeholders.

✓ Data Analyst/Scientist: Analyzes and interprets data to extract insights and inform decision-making. Data
analysts and scientists use statistical techniques, data visualization tools, and machine learning algorithms to
analyze large datasets and identify trends and patterns.
 Aspects and implications of Employing
Information Systems Personnel
✓ Strategic Alignment: Hiring information systems personnel allows organizations to align their IT capabilities
with their overall business strategy. Personnel can develop and implement IT solutions that support
organizational goals, improve efficiency, and drive innovation.

✓ Technology Adoption and Integration: Information systems personnel play a crucial role in adopting and
integrating new technologies within the organization. They evaluate emerging technologies, assess their
suitability for organizational needs, and manage the implementation process to ensure smooth integration with
existing systems.

✓ Operational Efficiency: By employing skilled information systems personnel, organizations can streamline
business processes, automate routine tasks, and optimize workflows. This leads to improved operational
efficiency, reduced costs, and increased productivity.
✓ Data Management and Analysis: Information systems personnel are responsible for managing and analyzing
data to extract valuable insights that inform decision-making. They develop and maintain databases, design
data analytics solutions, and generate reports and dashboards to support strategic and operational decisions.

✓ Security and Compliance: Information systems personnel play a critical role in ensuring the security and
compliance of IT systems and data. They implement security measures, conduct risk assessments, and enforce
compliance with regulatory requirements to protect against cyber threats and data breaches.

✓ User Support and Training: Employing information systems personnel enables organizations to provide
technical support and training to users. Personnel help troubleshoot IT issues, provide guidance on using
software applications, and deliver training programs to enhance users' IT skills and knowledge.

✓ Innovation and Competitive Advantage: Information systems personnel drive innovation within the
organization by identifying opportunities to leverage technology for competitive advantage. They research
industry trends, explore new technologies, and develop innovative solutions that differentiate the organization
in the marketplace.
✓ Collaboration and Communication: Information systems personnel facilitate collaboration and
communication across departments by implementing collaborative tools and communication platforms. They
enable remote work, virtual meetings, and real-time collaboration, which improve teamwork and decision-
making.

✓ Scalability and Flexibility: As organizations grow and evolve, information systems personnel ensure that IT
infrastructure and systems can scale to meet changing demands. They design scalable architectures,
implement flexible solutions, and adapt IT systems to accommodate organizational growth and expansion.
 Workplace Monitoring
Workplace monitoring refers to the practice of observing and collecting information about employees' activities,
behaviors, and performance while they are at work.
 Forms of workplace monitoring
➢ Electronic Surveillance: Employers may use video cameras, audio recording devices, and other electronic
surveillance tools to monitor employees' activities in the workplace. This can include monitoring common
areas, workstations, and interactions with customers or clients.

➢ Computer and Internet Monitoring: Employers may monitor employees' computer usage, including
websites visited, emails sent and received, files accessed, and time spent on specific tasks. Monitoring
software can track keystrokes, capture screenshots, and log internet activity to assess productivity and ensure
compliance with company policies.

➢ Phone Monitoring: Employers may monitor employees' phone calls, including landline and mobile calls, to
assess customer interactions, monitor sales or support calls, and ensure compliance with company policies.
➢ Biometric Monitoring: Employers may use biometric technologies, such as fingerprint scanners or facial
recognition systems, to track employees' attendance, access to secure areas, or time spent on specific tasks.

➢ GPS Tracking: Employers may use GPS tracking devices installed in company vehicles or mobile devices to
monitor employees' movements, locations, and travel routes. This can be used to track delivery drivers, field
service technicians, or employees who work off-site.

➢ Email and Communication Monitoring: Employers may monitor employees' email communications, instant
messages, and other forms of electronic communication to ensure compliance with company policies, protect
sensitive information, and detect potential misconduct.

➢ Performance Metrics and Analytics: Employers may use performance metrics and analytics to monitor
employees' productivity, efficiency, and performance. This can include tracking key performance indicators
(KPIs), setting performance targets, and conducting performance evaluations based on quantifiable data.
 Workplace monitoring Benefits
➢ Increased Productivity: Workplace monitoring can help identify inefficiencies, bottlenecks, and time-
wasting activities in workflows and processes. By tracking employee activities and performance metrics,
organizations can identify areas for improvement and implement targeted interventions to boost productivity.

➢ Improved Compliance: Monitoring can help ensure that employees adhere to company policies, procedures,
and regulatory requirements. By tracking employee behavior and activities, organizations can detect and
address violations of policies related to data security, workplace safety, ethical conduct, and legal compliance.

➢ Enhanced Security: Monitoring can help detect and prevent security breaches, unauthorized access, and
insider threats. By monitoring network traffic, system logs, and user activity, organizations can identify
suspicious behavior and take proactive measures to protect sensitive information and assets from cyber threats
and data breaches.
➢ Better Resource Allocation: Monitoring can provide valuable insights into resource utilization and allocation,
enabling organizations to optimize their workforce, equipment, and infrastructure. By tracking employee workloads,
availability, and performance, organizations can allocate resources more effectively and ensure that tasks are
assigned to the most suitable individuals.

➢ Quality Assurance: Monitoring can help maintain and improve the quality of products and services by identifying
issues and deviations from quality standards. By monitoring production processes, customer interactions, and service
delivery, organizations can identify opportunities for improvement and implement corrective actions to enhance
quality and customer satisfaction.

➢ Risk Management: Monitoring can help organizations identify and mitigate operational risks, such as compliance
violations, legal liabilities, and reputational risks. By monitoring employee behavior, organizational processes, and
external factors, organizations can proactively identify and address potential risks before they escalate into
problems.

➢ Performance Evaluation and Feedback: Monitoring can provide valuable data for performance evaluation and
feedback, enabling organizations to assess employee performance objectively and provide constructive feedback for
improvement. By tracking key performance indicators and metrics, organizations can recognize top performers,
identify training needs, and align individual goals with organizational objectives.
 Ethical and legal considerations related
workplace monitoring
✓ Privacy: Employees have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the workplace, and monitoring practices
should not infringe upon this right unnecessarily. Employers should clearly communicate the types of
monitoring being conducted, the purposes for which data is collected, and how it will be used. Monitoring
should be limited to what is necessary for legitimate business purposes and should not intrude upon
employees' personal activities or communications.

✓ Consent: Employers should obtain informed consent from employees before implementing monitoring
practices that may impact their privacy. This may involve informing employees about the monitoring
activities being conducted, the reasons for monitoring, and how their data will be used and protected.
Employees should have the opportunity to ask questions, express concerns, and provide input on the
monitoring policies and procedures.
✓ Transparency: Employers should be transparent about their monitoring practices and ensure that employees
are aware of the monitoring activities being conducted. This includes providing clear information about the
types of monitoring being used, the purposes for which data is collected, and the potential implications for
employees. Transparency builds trust and helps employees understand the reasons for monitoring.

✓ Fairness: Employers should ensure that monitoring practices are fair and equitable and do not unfairly target
or discriminate against specific individuals or groups. Monitoring policies should be applied consistently and
without bias, and any disciplinary actions taken based on monitoring data should be justified and
proportionate to the offense.

✓ Data Protection: Employers have a legal obligation to protect employees' personal data and ensure that it is
collected, processed, and stored in compliance with applicable data protection laws and regulations. This
includes implementing appropriate security measures to safeguard data against unauthorized access,
disclosure, alteration, or destruction.
✓ Employee Rights: Employers should respect employees' rights to privacy, freedom of expression, and
freedom of association in the workplace. Monitoring practices should not unduly restrict employees' ability to
communicate, collaborate, or engage in protected activities, such as union organizing or whistleblowing.

✓ Legal Compliance: Employers should ensure that their monitoring practices comply with applicable laws,
regulations, and industry standards, including privacy laws, labor laws, and employment contracts. This may
involve consulting with legal experts to ensure that monitoring policies and procedures are legally compliant
and do not expose the organization to legal risks or liabilities.

✓ Ethical Use of Data: Employers should use monitoring data ethically and responsibly and ensure that it is
used only for legitimate business purposes. Data should not be used for discriminatory, harassing, or
retaliatory purposes, and employees' rights and interests should be respected at all times.
 Equality and Diversity
Equality and diversity are fundamental principles that promote fairness, inclusion, and respect for all
individuals, regardless of their differences. In the workplace, promoting equality and diversity is not only a
moral imperative but also contributes to organizational success, innovation, and employee satisfaction

Relating to pay and discrimination, Equality refers to the principles and efforts aimed at ensuring that
individuals receive fair and equal compensation for their work, regardless of factors such as gender, race,
ethnicity, age, disability, or other protected characteristics.
 How equality relates to pay and
discrimination
✓ Equal Pay for Equal Work: This principle asserts that individuals who perform the same or similar work
should receive equal pay, regardless of their gender, race, or other irrelevant factors. Pay discrimination
occurs when employees are paid less than others for doing the same job simply because of their gender, race,
or other protected characteristic.

✓ Gender Pay Gap: Gender pay gap refers to the difference in earnings between men and women in the
workforce. It is often influenced by factors such as occupational segregation, where women are
overrepresented in lower-paying jobs, as well as gender discrimination and biases in hiring, promotion, and
pay decisions.

✓ Pay Equity: Pay equity focuses on ensuring fairness and eliminating pay disparities based on gender, race, or
other protected characteristics. It involves evaluating and addressing systemic biases and inequalities in pay
practices, including job evaluation, salary negotiation, and performance evaluation processes.
✓ Discrimination in Pay Practices: Discrimination in pay practices occurs when individuals are paid less or denied
opportunities for advancement based on their gender, race, ethnicity, age, disability, or other protected characteristics. This
can include direct discrimination, such as paying women less than men for the same work, as well as indirect
discrimination, such as implementing policies or practices that disproportionately disadvantage certain groups.

✓ Legal Protections: Laws and regulations, such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963 in the United States and the Equality Act
2010 in the United Kingdom, prohibit pay discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity, age, disability, and other
protected characteristics. These laws require employers to pay employees equally for equal work and provide remedies for
victims of pay discrimination.

✓ Promoting Transparency and Accountability: Promoting transparency and accountability in pay practices can help
identify and address pay disparities and discrimination. Employers can conduct regular pay audits, publish pay data, and
establish clear criteria and processes for determining pay and promotions to ensure fairness and consistency.

✓ Educating and Empowering Employees: Educating and empowering employees about their rights and the importance
of pay equality can help prevent discrimination and encourage individuals to advocate for fair treatment. This includes
providing training on diversity, equity, and inclusion, as well as promoting salary negotiation skills and awareness of legal
protections against pay discrimination.
 Diversity
Diversity relating to pay and discrimination involves addressing disparities and biases in compensation practices
based on factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, disability, sexual orientation, or other protected
characteristics.
 How diversity intersects with pay and
discrimination
✓ Pay Disparities: Diversity in the workplace can lead to pay disparities when certain groups, such as women,
racial or ethnic minorities, or individuals with disabilities, are systematically paid less than others for similar
work. These disparities may result from conscious or unconscious biases in pay decisions, as well as
structural barriers that limit opportunities for advancement and higher pay.

✓ Gender Pay Gap: One of the most well-known examples of pay disparity related to diversity is the gender
pay gap, which refers to the difference in earnings between men and women in the workforce. Despite
progress in gender equality, women continue to earn less than men on average, with factors such as
occupational segregation, discrimination, and caregiving responsibilities contributing to the gap.

✓ Racial and Ethnic Pay Gaps: Similar to the gender pay gap, racial and ethnic minorities often face pay
disparities compared to their white counterparts. These disparities can stem from systemic racism, unequal
access to education and employment opportunities, and discrimination in hiring, promotion, and pay
decisions.
✓ Intersectionality: Intersectionality recognizes that individuals may experience multiple forms of discrimination and disadvantage
based on the intersection of their identities. For example, women of color may face compounded barriers to equal pay and advancement
due to both gender and racial discrimination. Addressing pay disparities requires understanding and addressing the intersecting factors
that contribute to inequality.

✓ Discrimination in Pay Practices: Discrimination in pay practices occurs when individuals are paid less or denied opportunities for
advancement based on their diversity characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, or age. This can include direct discrimination, such
as paying minority employees less than their white counterparts for the same work, as well as indirect discrimination resulting from
systemic biases in hiring, promotion, and evaluation processes.

✓ Promoting Pay Equity: Promoting pay equity involves ensuring fairness and eliminating pay disparities based on diversity
characteristics. This may include conducting pay audits, implementing transparent and objective pay structures, providing training on
diversity and unconscious bias, and addressing systemic barriers to advancement and higher pay for underrepresented groups.

✓ Legal Protections: Laws and regulations, such as the Equal Pay Act, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, and various state and local laws,
prohibit pay discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity, and other protected characteristics. Employers are required to provide
equal pay for equal work and can be held accountable for discriminatory pay practices.

✓ Creating Inclusive Policies and Cultures: Creating inclusive policies and cultures that value diversity and promote equal
opportunities for all employees is essential for addressing pay disparities and discrimination. This includes fostering diversity in
leadership, providing support for work-life balance and career development, and actively addressing biases and stereotypes that may
influence pay decisions.
Data Management issues and Outsourcing
Data management
Data management refers to the process of acquiring, storing, organizing, protecting, and analyzing data to ensure
its accuracy, reliability, accessibility, and security. Effective data management is essential for organizations to
derive insights, make informed decisions, and achieve their business objectives
 Key principles and best practices for
effective data management
✓ Data Governance: Establish a robust data governance framework that defines policies, standards, and procedures
for managing data assets. This includes data stewardship, data quality management, data security, data privacy, and
compliance with regulatory requirements. Data governance ensures accountability, transparency, and alignment with
organizational goals.

✓ Data Quality Management: Implement processes and tools to monitor, assess, and improve the quality of data.
This involves data cleansing, validation, enrichment, and deduplication to ensure data accuracy, consistency,
completeness, and reliability. Data quality management ensures that data meets the needs of users and supports
reliable decision-making and analysis.

✓ Data Security and Privacy: Protect data from unauthorized access, disclosure, alteration, or destruction by
implementing robust data security measures. This includes encryption, access controls, authentication, authorization,
auditing, and monitoring to safeguard sensitive information and mitigate security risks. Data privacy measures, such
as data anonymization, de-identification, and consent management, ensure compliance with data protection laws and
regulations.
✓ Data Integration and Interoperability: Integrate and harmonize data from disparate sources to create a unified view of data assets. This
involves data integration technologies, such as ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) tools, data virtualization, and APIs (Application Programming
Interfaces), to facilitate seamless data exchange and analysis. Data interoperability ensures consistency, compatibility, and usability of data
across different systems and platforms.

✓ Data Storage and Scalability: Choose appropriate storage technologies and infrastructure to store and manage data efficiently and securely.
This includes databases, data warehouses, data lakes, cloud storage, or hybrid solutions that provide scalability, reliability, and performance
to meet the organization's needs. Implementing data storage best practices, such as data partitioning, compression, and archival strategies,
helps optimize storage resources and reduce costs.

✓ Data Lifecycle Management: Manage the entire lifecycle of data from creation to disposal to ensure compliance with legal, regulatory, and
business requirements. This involves data classification, retention policies, archival strategies, and data disposal procedures to optimize
storage, minimize risks, and ensure regulatory compliance. Data lifecycle management ensures that data is managed effectively and
responsibly throughout its lifecycle.

✓ Data Analytics and Insights: Leverage data analytics and visualization tools to derive insights and value from data assets. This involves data
mining, machine learning, statistical analysis, and visualization techniques to uncover patterns, trends, and relationships in data that support
decision-making and strategic planning. Data analytics enables organizations to unlock the full potential of their data assets and drive
innovation, efficiency, and competitiveness.

✓ User Education and Training: Provide training and support to users to ensure they understand how to effectively use and manage data. This
includes data literacy programs, user guides, and training sessions on data management best practices, tools, and techniques. User education
helps empower employees to make informed decisions, use data responsibly, and maximize the value of data assets.
Data Management issues

Data management can face various challenges and issues that

organizations need to address to ensure the accuracy, reliability, security,
and accessibility of their data assets. Some common data management
issues include:
✓ Data Quality: Poor data quality can undermine the effectiveness of data-driven decision-making and
analysis. Data may suffer from errors, inconsistencies, duplicates, missing values, or inaccuracies, which
can lead to flawed insights and unreliable outcomes. Ensuring data quality requires implementing data
cleansing, validation, and enrichment processes to identify and correct errors and maintain data integrity.
✓ Data Security issues: Protecting data from unauthorized access, disclosure, alteration, or destruction is a critical concern

for organizations. Data breaches, cyberattacks, and insider threats can compromise sensitive information and result in

financial losses, reputational damage, and legal liabilities. Organizations need to implement robust data security measures,

such as encryption, access controls, authentication, and monitoring, to safeguard their data assets against security threats.

✓ Data Governance issues: Data governance issues can arise from the lack of clear policies, standards, and procedures for

managing data assets. Inconsistent data definitions, ownership, and responsibilities can lead to confusion, conflicts, and

inefficiencies in data management practices. Establishing a comprehensive data governance framework, including data

stewardship, data security, data privacy, and data quality management, is essential for ensuring accountability, compliance,

and alignment with organizational goals.

✓ Data Integration and Interoperability issues: Integrating and harmonizing data from disparate sources can be

challenging, particularly when dealing with diverse data formats, structures, and systems. Incompatibility issues, data silos,

and legacy systems can hinder data integration efforts and prevent organizations from achieving a unified view of their data

assets. Implementing data integration technologies, such as ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) tools, data virtualization, and

APIs (Application Programming Interfaces), can help overcome interoperability challenges and facilitate seamless data

exchange and analysis.

✓ Data Privacy and Compliance issues: Data privacy concerns and regulatory requirements, such as GDPR (General Data Protection
Regulation), HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act), or CCPA (California Consumer Privacy Act), impose strict
obligations on organizations to protect individuals' personal information and ensure compliance with data protection laws. Failure to
comply with these regulations can result in hefty fines, legal penalties, and reputational damage. Organizations need to implement
privacy-enhancing measures, such as data anonymization, encryption, and access controls, to safeguard sensitive information and
maintain regulatory compliance.

✓ Data Storage and Scalability issues: Managing the exponential growth of data volume and complexity can strain existing storage
infrastructure and resources, leading to scalability and performance issues. Traditional storage solutions may struggle to accommodate
large-scale data storage and processing requirements, resulting in bottlenecks, latency, and resource constraints. Adopting scalable and
cost-effective storage solutions, such as cloud storage, distributed file systems, or object storage, can help organizations address
scalability challenges and optimize data storage and management capabilities.

✓ Data Lifecycle Management issues: Managing the entire lifecycle of data from creation to disposal requires careful planning and
execution to ensure compliance with legal, regulatory, and business requirements. Inadequate data retention policies, archival
strategies, and data disposal procedures can lead to data sprawl, storage inefficiencies, and legal risks. Implementing comprehensive
data lifecycle management practices, including data classification, retention schedules, archival strategies, and data disposal protocols,
is essential for optimizing data storage, minimizing risks, and ensuring regulatory compliance.
 Outsourcing
Outsourcing is the practice of contracting out certain business functions, processes, or services to external third-
party providers rather than handling them in-house. Organizations outsource various activities to achieve cost
savings, improve efficiency, access specialized expertise, focus on core business functions, and remain
competitive in the global marketplace.
 Benefits of Outsourcing
➢ Cost Savings: Outsourcing can reduce labor, infrastructure, and operational costs, particularly in regions with
lower labor costs.

➢ Access to Expertise: Outsourcing allows organizations to access specialized skills, knowledge, and resources
that may not be available in-house.

➢ Focus on Core Competencies: Outsourcing non-core activities enables organizations to focus on their core
business functions and strategic priorities.

➢ Flexibility and Scalability: Outsourcing provides flexibility to scale resources up or down based on business
needs, without incurring fixed costs.

➢ Improved Efficiency: Outsourcing can improve operational efficiency, productivity, and service quality by
leveraging the expertise and resources of external providers.
 Risks and Challenges of Outsourcing
➢ Loss of Control: Outsourcing activities to external providers may result in loss of control over processes,
quality, and decision-making.

➢ Quality and Performance Issues: Poor performance, communication gaps, and cultural differences with
outsourcing partners can lead to quality issues and service disruptions.

➢ Security and Confidentiality Risks: Outsourcing sensitive functions such as IT or customer data management
may expose organizations to security breaches, data leaks, and confidentiality risks.

➢ Dependency on Third-Party Providers: Overreliance on outsourcing partners may create dependency risks,
particularly if the provider experiences financial instability, operational issues, or contractual disputes.

➢ Legal and Compliance Risks: Outsourcing activities may raise legal and compliance risks related to data
protection, intellectual property rights, regulatory compliance, and contractual obligations.
Freedom of Information and implications
Freedom of information (FOI) refers to the right of individuals to access information held by public
authorities and government agencies. It is a fundamental human right that promotes transparency, accountability,
and democratic governance by allowing citizens to obtain information about government activities, decisions,
and policies.
Freedom of Information in Uganda
In Uganda, the right to access information is enshrined in the country's Constitution and is further supported by the
Access to Information Act, which was enacted in 2005.

Access to Information Act (2005)

The Access to Information Act (ATIA) of Uganda provides the legal framework for citizens to access information held
by public bodies. The Act aims to promote transparency, accountability, and good governance by allowing individuals
to request and receive information from government institutions.

✓ Scope of Application: The ATIA applies to public bodies, including government ministries, departments, agencies,
local governments, and other public institutions funded by public resources. Private entities carrying out public
functions or providing public services may also be subject to the Act.

✓ Right to Information: The ATIA guarantees the right of access to information held by public bodies. Individuals
have the right to request information in writing and receive a response within a specified timeframe. Public bodies
are required to provide access to requested information unless it falls under specified exemptions.
✓ Exemptions: The ATIA includes exemptions for certain categories of information that may be withheld from
disclosure. Exempted information may include sensitive national security matters, personal privacy, law
enforcement, legal privilege, and commercial confidentiality.

✓ Appeals and Review Mechanisms: The ATIA provides mechanisms for individuals to appeal decisions to
deny access to information or withhold information. The Act establishes an Information Commission tasked
with overseeing the implementation of the Act and handling appeals and complaints related to access to
information.

✓ Public Awareness and Education: The Ugandan government has conducted public awareness campaigns and
provided training to public officials and civil society organizations to promote awareness and understanding
of the right to access information and the provisions of the Access to Information Act.
 FOI Implications
Freedom of Information (FOI) laws have several implications for governments, public authorities, citizens, and
society as a whole

➢ Transparency and Accountability: FOI laws promote transparency and accountability in government by
allowing citizens to access information about government activities, decisions, and policies. By providing
greater transparency, FOI laws help to prevent corruption, foster public trust in government institutions, and
hold public officials accountable for their actions.

➢ Citizen Empowerment: FOI laws empower citizens to participate in the democratic process by enabling
them to access information necessary to make informed decisions, engage in public debate, and hold elected
representatives and government agencies accountable. This empowerment strengthens democratic governance
and promotes citizen engagement in public affairs.
➢ Enhanced Public Services: FOI laws can lead to improvements in public services by enabling citizens to
access information about government programs, services, and performance. Increased transparency can help
identify areas for improvement, enhance service delivery, and ensure that public resources are used efficiently
and effectively to meet the needs of citizens.

➢ Promotion of Human Rights: FOI laws are aligned with the right to freedom of expression and the right to
information, which are fundamental human rights recognized by international law. By guaranteeing access to
information, FOI laws contribute to the promotion and protection of human rights, including the right to seek,
receive, and impart information.

➢ Challenges for Governments: Implementing FOI laws can pose challenges for governments and public
authorities, including the need to establish administrative structures and processes for handling information
requests, ensuring compliance with legal requirements, protecting sensitive information, and managing
resources to respond to requests in a timely manner.
➢ Promotion of Open Government: FOI laws are a key component of the broader concept of open
government, which emphasizes transparency, accountability, citizen participation, and collaboration in
government activities. FOI laws support open government initiatives by providing mechanisms for citizens to
access government information and engage in decision-making processes.

➢ Capacity Building and Awareness: Implementing FOI laws requires capacity building and awareness-
raising efforts to educate public officials, citizens, and civil society organizations about their rights and
responsibilities under the law. Training programs, workshops, and public awareness campaigns can help build
capacity and promote a culture of transparency and accountability.

➢ Balancing Transparency and Privacy: FOI laws must strike a balance between transparency and privacy
interests. While transparency is essential for accountability and democratic governance, privacy concerns may
arise when disclosing personal or sensitive information. FOI laws typically include exemptions to protect
privacy rights and other legitimate interests, such as national security and commercial confidentiality.
Ethical Issues in Information Systems
Ethical issues in information systems arise from the intersection of technology, data, and human behavior. These
issues involve considerations of privacy, security, fairness, accountability, and the impact of technology on
individuals, organizations, and society.

Ethical Issues in Information Systems

➢ Privacy: Information systems collect, process, and store vast amounts of personal data, raising concerns about
privacy infringement. Ethical considerations include obtaining informed consent for data collection,
protecting sensitive information from unauthorized access or disclosure, and ensuring compliance with
privacy laws and regulations.

➢ Security: Information systems face threats such as cyberattacks, data breaches, and unauthorized access,
which can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data. Ethical responsibilities include
implementing robust security measures, safeguarding sensitive information, and mitigating risks to protect
individuals' rights and interests.
➢ Data Governance: Ethical issues in data governance include ensuring data quality, accuracy, and reliability,
preventing data manipulation or bias, and promoting transparency and accountability in data management
practices. Organizations have ethical responsibilities to use data responsibly, respect data subjects' rights, and
avoid discriminatory or unethical uses of data.

➢ Algorithmic Bias: Information systems often use algorithms and machine learning models to automate
decision-making processes, which can introduce biases and unfairness. Ethical considerations include
identifying and mitigating biases in algorithms, ensuring fairness and transparency in decision-making, and
addressing issues of algorithmic discrimination and social inequality.

➢ Digital Divide: The digital divide refers to disparities in access to information and communication
technologies (ICTs) between different socioeconomic groups, regions, or demographics. Ethical concerns
include addressing inequalities in access to technology and digital literacy, promoting digital inclusion and
equitable access to information resources, and reducing barriers to participation in the digital economy.
➢ Intellectual Property: Ethical issues in intellectual property involve protecting intellectual property rights,

respecting copyright and trademark laws, and preventing plagiarism or unauthorized use of creative works.

Organizations have ethical responsibilities to respect and protect intellectual property, properly attribute

sources, and avoid infringing on the rights of content creators.

➢ Surveillance and Monitoring: Information systems enable surveillance and monitoring of individuals' online

activities, behaviors, and communications, raising concerns about privacy invasion and civil liberties. Ethical

considerations include balancing the need for security and public safety with individuals' right to privacy,

obtaining lawful and ethical justification for surveillance activities, and ensuring transparency and

accountability in surveillance practices.

➢ Ethical Use of Technology: Ethical issues in the use of technology include considerations of responsible

innovation, ethical design practices, and the social and environmental impacts of technology deployment.

Organizations have ethical responsibilities to develop and use technology in ways that promote human well-

being, protect the environment, and uphold ethical principles and values.
 Approach to Ethical Issues
Addressing ethical issues in information systems requires a comprehensive approach that considers the complex
interplay of technology, human behavior, and societal values

✓ Understand Ethical Principles: Begin by familiarizing yourself with ethical principles relevant to information
systems, such as privacy, security, fairness, transparency, accountability, and respect for individuals' rights and
dignity. Consider ethical frameworks and codes of conduct developed by professional organizations, industry
associations, and regulatory bodies.

✓ Identify Ethical Issues: Conduct a systematic assessment of potential ethical issues associated with information
systems in your organization. Consider how technology, data, and human factors intersect to create ethical
dilemmas, such as privacy infringements, security vulnerabilities, algorithmic biases, intellectual property
violations, and social implications of technology use.

✓ Evaluate Impacts: Assess the potential impacts of ethical issues on individuals, organizations, and society. Consider
the ethical, legal, social, and economic implications of information systems, including risks to privacy, security
breaches, inequalities in access to technology, discrimination, and negative consequences for vulnerable populations.
✓ Engage Stakeholders: Involve stakeholders from diverse backgrounds and perspectives in discussions about
ethical issues in information systems. This may include technology developers, users, managers,
policymakers, ethicists, legal experts, and representatives from affected communities. Seek input, feedback,
and consensus on ethical considerations and decision-making processes.

✓ Develop Ethical Guidelines: Establish ethical guidelines, policies, and procedures to guide the development,
deployment, and use of information systems. Define clear standards of ethical conduct, principles for
responsible technology use, and mechanisms for ethical decision-making and accountability. Ensure that
ethical guidelines align with organizational values, legal requirements, and industry best practices.

✓ Integrate Ethics into Design: Embed ethical considerations into the design and development of information
systems from the outset. Adopt ethical design principles and practices that prioritize user privacy, data
security, fairness, transparency, and user autonomy. Incorporate mechanisms for informed consent, data
protection, and user empowerment into system design.
➢ Promote Ethical Culture: Foster a culture of ethics and integrity within the organization by promoting
awareness, education, and training on ethical issues in information systems. Provide employees with
resources, guidance, and support to navigate ethical dilemmas and make ethical decisions. Encourage open
communication, ethical leadership, and a commitment to ethical behavior at all levels of the organization.

➢ Monitor and Review: Continuously monitor and review the ethical implications of information systems to
identify emerging issues, assess compliance with ethical guidelines, and evaluate the effectiveness of ethical
practices. Regularly conduct ethical assessments, audits, and impact evaluations to ensure that information
systems uphold ethical standards and meet stakeholders' expectations
ANONYMITY AND
CYBERCRIMES

81
Anonymity
• The term anonymity has been used to denote a number of related
things: namelessness, detachment, unidentifiability, lack of
recognition, loss of sense of identity or sense of self, and so on.

82
Anonymity cont--
• Anonymity can also be brought about in a variety of ways and there are many
purposes, both positive and negative, anonymity could serve such as, on the
positive side, promoting free expression and exchange of ideas, or protecting
someone from undesirable publicity or, on the negative, hate speech with no
accountability, fraud or other criminal activity.

83
• Anonymity and privacy are also considered to be closely related,
with anonymity being one means of ensuring privacy.

84
 ANONYMITY AS A FEATURE OF
COMPLEX SOCIAL STRUCTURES

• It is worth noting that recent concerns about anonymity may be an expression of

a widespread feature of contemporary social organization and of the extent to
which technological features of that organization affect with whom we interact,
how we interact with one another, and how we think of ourselves as related,
socially and ethically to others.

85
 Internet Vs Anonymity
• The Internet as a social environment may be of concern in so far as it has the
capacity to increase the scope of natural or spontaneous anonymity as a by-product
of or endemic to the nature of online communicative relations. For instance, in
comparison to face-to-face and telephonic communications, social and person cues
are reduced in online communications, and people can easily adopt pseudonyms and
personae in chat rooms, blogs, and so on.

86
• In addition, as a new social environment, the Internet may offer new ways of self-identification,
expression, and interaction with identifiable persons. To the extent that anonymity is possible,
worries about the undermining of identity, self-cohesion and community have been expressed.

87
 ANONYMITY AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

• Data Mining, Tracking, and User’s Presumption of Anonymity.

Activities of computer users are tracked and compiled in databases, as
well as are attributes or characteristics (e.g., names, social security
numbers, phone numbers) of individuals.

88
• Depending on the extent of co-ordinatability and routes of access between sets of
databases, they can provide sophisticated and detailed ways of identifying individuals for
explicit marketing, eavesdropping, and other purposes.

• One problem in this area is that the user may assume that her activities are anonymous,
that is, not co-ordinatable with her as an individual or with other distinguishing traits of her
as an individual.

89
• In fact, computer-mediated or online communication may encourage the impression that one is
anonymous, even though one’s activities may be relatively easily coordinated, leading to
identifiability by marketers, researchers, government officials, and so on.

90
Anonymity and Expression of Self

One function of anonymity might be to allow an individual to act or to express herself in ways that would
not be possible or recognized if the identity of the individual were known. For example, a woman writer in
taking a male false name (here, a false name might indeed function to ensure anonymity) might enable
recognition of her work which would otherwise have not been published at all (e.g., George Eliot, George
Sand).

91
• Computer-mediated or online communication may facilitate communication,
participation and exploration of the self, or the development of free political
speech that might not otherwise be possible or recognized

92
• In addition, while instant messaging allows for speedy and direct response, it may tend to discourage
or weed out more thoughtful responses.

• It may even in some cases lead to misunderstanding. Sometimes the meaning of a communication is
not immediately apparent and only becomes so as the recipient of the communication reflects on it and
allows interpretation to take place. Instant messaging might tend to displace the occurrence of this
more extended reflective, interpretive process.

93
• On the other hand, the rapidity of response may allow for speedier clarifications of meaning and
hence avoid misunderstandings.

• Wide access to the sites containing personal profiles may also expose individuals in ways that may
be harmful to them, for example, in the context of job seeking when employers check their
personal sites, or if the profiles open them up to cyberstalking.

94
 Anonymity and Identity Theft
• In identity theft, typically some important identifying tags of a person are stolen, for example, social
security number, credit card information, banking information, name and address, and so on.

• The thief may use the stolen identifying tags for her or himself, or may sell or transfer them to others,
who then use them. The uses themselves typically involve fraud or theft, for example, using credit card
information to make expensive consumer purchases, or using bank information to transfer or
withdraw sums of money.

95
Computer Abuse/Cyber
crime
The term computer crime refers to;

1. Any crime in which computer- 3 .Computer crime is the “misuse” of

related technology is computers and peripherals in a way
encountered. that can cause destruction or
breakdown of the hardware and or
software.
2. The commission of illegal acts
through the use of a computer or
against a computer system

97
Computer Abuse
• Computer abuse means wrongful use of computers and peripherals.
Computer abuse may not necessarily lead to a breakdown of the computer
system.

2/5/2025
Examples of computer Abuse:

✓Moonlighting; Using the company’s computer facilities to do other

personal work especially after the office hours.

✓Surfing during company time This is using the company Internet

facilities to surf and send personal emails during the company time.

2/5/2025
✓ Playing games Using the computer facilities during the company hours to play games such as
Pachisi, Solitaire, Free cell etc.

✓ Viewing the computer files, facilities, and the internet during lecture time and constantly
disturbing the lecturer when the lecture is going on.

2/5/2025
✓ Wrongful shutting down of computers This is whereby a computer user turns off the computer
without shutting it down.

✓ Leaving the computer on for long hours This is especially when the computer is not in use, for
example leaving the computer on over night.

✓ Hitting the computer Whereby a lot of force is used on the computer, for example on the keyboard.
This can also include intentional hitting of the computer.

2/5/2025
• Spreading viruses; Transferring viruses from one computer to another using
storage devices like memory sticks and floppy disks.

• Downloading infected files Downloading file attachments that are infected

with viruses from the Internet

2/5/2025
More examples of Computer Crimes
✓ Web site defacement or vandalism ✓ Forgery, illegal interception & ID Theft

✓ Denial of service attacks on websites and ✓ Payment card fraud & e-funds transfer
fraud
online services
✓ Pornography/Child Pornography; cyber-
✓ Theft of customer data stalking
✓ Theft of electronic intellectual property ✓ On-line Gaming/Betting

✓ Theft of Internet & Telephone services ✓ Commercial/Corporate Espionage

✓ Sabotage of data or networks ✓ Extortion & criminal conspiracy

communications
✓ Financial and On-line Securities Fraud
✓ Disruption of essential or critical network
services
 More examples of computer crime cont--
✓ Stealing or compromising data

✓ Gaining unauthorized computer access

✓ Threatening to damage computer systems

✓ Stealing time on company computers

✓ Breaking into government Web sites

✓ Computer forgery,

✓ Electronic Fund Transfers (EFTS),

✓ E-mail fraud, SPAM (unsolicited mail),

✓ intellectual property infringement,

✓ identity theft, and Child pornography.

✓ Unauthorized reproduction of legally protected computer programs

2/5/2025
Why Computer Crimes are difficult to deal
with
✓ Geographic dislocation of offender

✓ Invisibility/Anonymity of offender

✓ Lack of victim awareness

✓ Unwillingness to report

✓ Intangibility of digital goods, evidence, value

etc

2/5/2025
106
PREVENTION OF THE COMPUTER CRIME

✓ Education of each computer user on the dangers of the computer crimes, especially the young
generation which are the most numerous users.

Through this education each individual user will learn how to protect himself from cyber intruders or
computer viruses before injuries happen.
PREVENTION OF THE COMPUTER CRIME…

✓Administering of the information systems by trained personnel.

When choosing administrators who will take care of the security of the information
systems special attention should be paid to their proper education and experience, so
that they are one step ahead of the computer criminals and so that they apply proper
protection of the systems they control, according to regulations.
PREVENTION OF THE COMPUTER CRIME…

✓ Use of protection to reduce unauthorized access (both hardware and software security systems).

When choosing security systems modern tested technologies in this field should be used so that you
minimize risks from the so-called security holes in the systems which are skillfully used by hackers
to enter them.
PREVENTION OF THE COMPUTER CRIME…

✓ Passing of laws;

Having in mind the dangers of the computer crime the state should pass proper sanctions against
perpetrators of such crime that will impose serious threat to many potential hackers who will not run
the risk of entering into protected systems.
Detection of computer crime
✓ Injured party reports damage
One of the most frequent ways to discover any crime is receiving a report about it by the injured
party.
This is true for computer crimes too. In this sense an injured party can be both physical and legal
subjects, state organs and institutions.
 Detection of computer crime
✓ Administrators of information systems find out

Investigators of this type of crime sometimes use the original application program and sometimes use
special software for analysis and tools for investigation.

Investigators have found ways to collect traces from a remote computer which is out of their physical
reach through telephone line or network connection.

Moreover it is possible to follow the work of the computer network using the Internet.
 Detection of computer crime
✓ Computer forensic ;

Computer forensic is evidence produced by a computer which is supported, conclusive (convincing),

and sufficient to be accepted by the court.

No matter how much people are careful when stealing electronic information they leave behind traces
of their activities. Also when perpetrators try to destroy the evidence (proof) in the computer they
leave traces behind. In both cases the traces are detectible and can be presented before the court.
Intellectual property rights and computer
technology

114
 Introduction
✓ Gaining skills to provide computer technology products, services & software requires a
considerable investment both of time & money.

✓ So individuals who do this work should reap financial rewards for their efforts.

✓ These rewards create an atmosphere of creativity & competitiveness, which in turn create jobs
that drives the economy.

115
 Intellectual property definition
✓ This refers to: creation of mind, such as an invention, artistic work, symbol, name, image,
or design used in commerce

✓ Intellectual property is often a key asset of a company, and sometimes the only asset

✓ The Internet makes it easy for anyone to copy intellectual property and to distribute it to a
large number of users.

116
Property rights protection!!
• More than 1/3 of the software worldwide is counterfeit or pirated.
• $29 Billion in yearly losses from software piracy.
➢Music sharing,
➢Electronic books, articles, etc.
➢Illegal file sharing of videos.

117
 Property rights protection

• Intellectual property are Intangible property created by individuals or

corporations that are subject to protections
• Intellectual property is subject to a variety of protections including
➢Copy right
➢Trade secrets
➢Patent laws.
➢Trade marks

118
 Copy rights
✓ A statutory grant that protects creators of intellectual property against copying by others for any
purpose for the period of 28 years.

✓ Copy right protection has been extended to books, periodicals, lectures, dramas, musical compositions,
maps, drawings, artwork of any kind, and motion pictures.

119
 Copy right cont--
✓ The intent of copyright laws has been to encourage creativity and authorship by ensuring that
creative people receive the financial and other benefits of their work.

120
 copy right cont--
✓In 1980 congress passed a computer software copy right Act.
✓The act clearly provides protection for source and object code and for
copies of the original sold.
✓The act sets the rights of the purchaser to use the software while the
creator retains the legal title.

121
 Copyright License
• When permission is given by the copyright owner for another
person to use their work. The license spells out specifically
when, where, and how the work can be used.

122
 Copyright and Computers
✓Internet is protected by copyright (original authorship)
✓Nowadays the Internet is a wide-open source for information,
entertainment, and communication. Many people believe that
anything and everything go in cyberspace.

123
 Fair use
✓ This is one of the limitations to copyright intended to balance the interests of copyright holders with
the public interest in the wider distribution and use of creative works by allowing certain limited
uses that might otherwise be considered infringement.

124
 Public Domain
✓ Original works that can be used freely by anyone. Any rights that the original owner had,
have been given up, or have expired.

✓ Once a copyright on the work expires, that work goes into the public domain. Other works
into the public domain include;

✓ work owned by government,

✓ non-copyrightable items such as ideas, facts,

✓ works intentionally put in the public domain by the owner of the copyright

✓ works that lost copyright for various reasons before the copyright expired.

125
 Patents
✓A patent is a legal document that grants the owner an exclusive monopoly
on the ideas behind an invention for 17 years.

✓Designed to ensure that inventors of new machines or methods are

rewarded for their labor while making wide spread use of their inventions

126
 Patents cont---
✓ The patent owner can provide detailed diagrams for those wishing to use the ideas under
a license.

✓ The granting of patents is determined by the patent office and relies on court rulings.

✓ The strength of patent protection is that it grants monopoly on the underlying concepts
and ideas of the software.

127
 Trade secret
✓ A trade secret is information that gives a company or business a competitive advantage
over others in the field. It may be a formula, a design process, a device, or a trade figures.

✓ Any intellectual work or product used for business purpose that can be classified as
belonging to that business provided it is not based on information in the public domain.

✓ Software that contains unique elements, procedures, or compilations can be included as

trade secrets.

128
 Trade secret cont---
• The owners of trade secrets must take care to bind employees and
customers with nondisclosure agreements and to prevent the secret from
falling into the public domain.

129
 Trademarks
✓A trademark is a product or service identifying label.

✓It is a mark that attempts to distinguish a service or a product in the minds of the
consumers. The label may be any word, name, picture, or symbol.

✓It is very well known that consumers tend to choose between products through
association with the products brand name.

✓Because trade marks are used by customers to choose among competing

products, they are vigorously protected by their owners.

130
 Why trade marks???
✓A trade mark is a symbol or mark with financial value that helps
customers connect to the product.
✓The main purpose of trade mark is to make the product stand out against
the competitors.

131
 Infringement
✓Infringement refers to the violation of a law or a right.
✓Any body moving within the protected domains to claim rights for the use
of someone else’s manifestation of an idea without permission from the
holder of the rights is an infringer.

132
Types of infringement
• [This is your reading assignment]

133
Ethics and the Internet
 THE INTERNET

It is a global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses a combination of protocols known

as Transmission Control Protocol/ internet protocol (TCP/IP). It is a network of networks that
consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to
global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking
technologies.
 Internet Benefits
✓ Communication
✓ Online Shopping
✓ Entertainment
✓ Online Gaming
✓ Making Online Payments, Finance, and Banking
✓ Email services
 Key terms used in ethics and internet
➢ Cyber security: This refers to the practice of protecting computer systems, networks, and data from digital attacks, unauthorized
access, and other forms of cyber threats. It encompasses a wide range of techniques, technologies, and best practices aimed at
safeguarding digital assets and mitigating risks to information security.

It includes the following

✓ Risk Management: Identifying, assessing, and prioritizing potential cybersecurity risks to determine the most effective strategies for mitigation and resource allocation.

✓ Access Control: Implementing measures to control and restrict access to sensitive data, systems, and resources based on user roles, permissions, and authentication mechanisms.

✓ Data Encryption: Encrypting sensitive data to prevent unauthorized access or interception, ensuring confidentiality and integrity during storage, transmission, and processing.

✓ Network Security: Securing computer networks against unauthorized access, intrusion attempts, and malicious activities through the use of firewalls, intrusion detection/prevention
systems (IDS/IPS), and other network security technologies.

✓ Vulnerability Management: Identifying and addressing security vulnerabilities in software, hardware, and systems through regular vulnerability scanning, patch management, and
security updates.

✓ Security Policies and Compliance: Establishing and enforcing cybersecurity policies, procedures, and compliance standards to ensure adherence to industry regulations, legal
requirements, and organizational security objectives.

✓ Continuous Monitoring: Monitoring networks, systems, and user activity in real-time to detect and respond to security threats promptly, minimizing the impact of cyber attacks
and unauthorized access.
➢ Privacy: The right of individuals to control their personal information and data online.

➢ Security: Measures taken to protect digital systems, networks, and data from unauthorized access, breaches, and cyberattacks.

➢ Transparency: Openness and clarity in the practices, policies, and operations of internet companies and service providers.

➢ Accountability: Responsibility for one's actions and decisions, including the ethical implications of how data is collected, used, and shared
online.

➢ Consent: The principle that individuals should give informed and voluntary consent for the collection, use, and sharing of their personal
data.

➢ Digital Divide: The gap between those who have access to digital technologies and the internet and those who do not, often along socio-
economic, geographic, or demographic lines.

➢ Ethical Hacking: The practice of identifying security vulnerabilities in digital systems and networks in an ethical and responsible manner,
typically with the goal of improving security rather than causing harm.

➢ Data Protection: Measures and regulations aimed at safeguarding individuals' personal data and ensuring its responsible use by
organizations.

➢ Digital Rights: The rights of individuals to access, use, and participate in the digital world, including freedom of expression, privacy, and
access to information.
 Internet Ethical Concerns
Ethical concerns related to the internet encompass a wide range of issues that impact individuals, communities, and society as
a whole. Some of the most prominent ethical concerns include.

➢ Privacy: The collection, storage, and use of personal data by online platforms and service providers raise significant privacy concerns.
Users may not always be aware of how their data is being used or have control over its dissemination, leading to potential misuse or
exploitation.

➢ Security: Cybersecurity threats such as hacking, malware, and data breaches pose serious ethical dilemmas, as they can compromise
individuals' personal information, financial assets, and even national security. Ensuring the security of digital systems and protecting users
from harm is essential.

➢ Freedom of Expression: While the internet enables unprecedented freedom of expression and access to information, it also gives rise to
issues such as hate speech, online harassment, and the spread of harmful content. Balancing the right to free speech with the need to prevent
harm and maintain a respectful online environment is a complex ethical challenge.
➢ Digital Divide: Disparities in internet access, digital literacy, and technological infrastructure create inequalities that
exacerbate social, economic, and educational disparities. Bridging the digital divide is essential for promoting equal
opportunities and social inclusion in the digital age.

➢ Misinformation and Disinformation: The proliferation of false or misleading information online can have profound
societal consequences, undermining public trust, distorting public discourse, and even influencing elections and public
health outcomes. Combatting misinformation while respecting freedom of expression is a delicate ethical balancing act.

➢ Algorithmic Bias: Algorithms used in various online platforms and services may perpetuate biases and discrimination
based on race, gender, ethnicity, or other factors. Addressing algorithmic bias and ensuring fairness and transparency in
automated decision-making processes are critical ethical imperatives.

➢ Online Behavior: Ethical norms governing online behavior, including civility, respect, and empathy, are often violated,
leading to cyberbullying, trolling, and other forms of harmful conduct. Promoting digital citizenship and fostering a culture
of responsible online behavior are essential for creating a healthy online environment.
➢ Intellectual Property: The ease of copying, sharing, and distributing digital content online raises ethical questions about
copyright infringement, plagiarism, and fair compensation for creators. Balancing the interests of content creators,
consumers, and the public domain is crucial for fostering innovation and creativity in the digital era.

➢ Corporate Responsibility: Internet companies have a responsibility to uphold ethical standards in their business practices,
including transparency, accountability, and respect for user rights. Addressing issues such as data privacy, algorithmic
transparency, and content moderation is essential for building trust and promoting the public good.

➢ Regulatory Challenges: Developing effective regulatory frameworks to address internet-related ethical concerns is a
complex and evolving process. Balancing the need for innovation and economic growth with the protection of individual
rights and public welfare requires thoughtful consideration and collaboration among governments, industry stakeholders,
and civil society.
Professional Codes of Conduct
Professional ethics are principles that govern the behavior of a person or group in a business environment. Like values,
professional ethics provide rules on how a person should act towards other people and institutions in such an environment.
 Ethical principles
Ethical principles underpin all professional codes of conduct. Ethical principles may differ depending on the profession; for
example, professional ethics that relate to medical practitioners will differ from those that relate to lawyers or real estate
agents.
However, there are some universal ethical principles that apply across all professions, including:
✓ honesty
✓ trustworthiness
✓ loyalty
✓ respect for others
✓ adherence to the law
✓ doing good and avoiding harm to others
✓ accountability.
 Codes of conduct
Professional codes of conduct draw on these professional ethical principles as the basis for
prescribing required standards of behavior for members of a profession. They also seek to set out the
expectations that the profession and society have of its members.

The intention of codes of conduct is to provide guidelines for the minimum standard of appropriate
behavior in a professional context. Codes of conduct sit alongside the general law of the land and the
personal values of members of the profession.
Professional codes of conduct provide benefits to:

✓ the public, as they build confidence in the profession’s trustworthiness

✓ clients, as they provide greater transparency and certainty about how their affairs will be handled

✓ members of the profession, as they provide a supporting framework for resisting pressure to act inappropriately, and for
making acceptable decisions in what may be ‘grey areas’

✓ the profession as a whole, as they provide a common understanding of acceptable practice which builds collegiality and
allows for fairer disciplinary procedures

✓ others dealing with the profession, as the profession will be seen as more reliable and easier to deal with.
Aspects of Biometric regulation
Biometric
In information technology, Biometrics usually refers to automated technologies for authenticating and verifying human body
characteristics such as fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice patterns, facial patterns, and hand measurements.

Biometric data is information collected on body measurements and calculations related to human characteristics through
biometric technologies like facial recognition or fingerprint scanners. The purpose of this collection is surveillance. As
biometrics fast become more popular, countries like the USA and UK have even started using biometric tools for mass
surveillance of their citizens. This creates some very real privacy and data protection concerns for you as the data subject. The
misuse of your facial features and fingerprints sounds a lot more ominous than the simple misuse of your cellphone number
 Biometric regulation
Biometric regulation refers to laws, policies, and standards governing the collection, use, storage, and sharing of biometric
data. Biometric data refers to unique physical or behavioral characteristics used to identify individuals, such as fingerprints,
iris patterns, facial features, voice patterns, and gait.
 Biometric regulation positive impact
Biometric regulation can have several positive impacts on individuals, organizations, and society as a
whole
✓ Protection of Privacy: Biometric regulations establish clear guidelines for the collection, use, and storage of biometric data, helping to
safeguard individuals' privacy rights. By requiring organizations to obtain informed consent, limit data retention periods, and implement
security measures, regulations reduce the risk of unauthorized access, misuse, or abuse of biometric information.

✓ Enhanced Security: Biometric regulations promote the adoption of robust security measures to protect biometric data from unauthorized
access, breaches, and cyberattacks. By mandating encryption, access controls, and other security safeguards, regulations strengthen the
security posture of organizations and mitigate the risk of identity theft, fraud, and other cybercrimes.

✓ Increased Trust and Confidence: Compliance with biometric regulations enhances trust and confidence among individuals, consumers, and
stakeholders in the responsible handling of biometric data. By demonstrating a commitment to privacy and security, organizations build trust
with their customers and foster positive relationships based on transparency and accountability.

✓ Fairness and Accuracy: Biometric regulations may require organizations to ensure the accuracy and reliability of biometric systems to
prevent misidentification and discrimination. By setting standards for testing, calibration, and validation of biometric algorithms and
technologies, regulations promote fairness and reduce the risk of false positives or negatives in biometric identification processes.
Ethical negative impacts of biometric regulations
While biometric regulations aim to address ethical concerns related to privacy, security, and fairness, they can also have
negative ethical implications.

✓ Privacy infringement: Despite efforts to protect privacy, biometric regulations may inadvertently lead to greater privacy
infringement. The collection and storage of biometric data, even under regulated conditions, can still pose risks to
individuals' privacy if not implemented carefully. Regulations may legitimize the use of biometrics in contexts where
individuals may not have a meaningful choice to opt out, such as employment or public services.

✓ Surveillance and control: Biometric regulations, particularly when applied in surveillance contexts, can contribute to
increased surveillance and control over individuals' movements and activities. In certain environments, such as workplaces
or public spaces, the use of biometric technologies for monitoring and identification purposes may raise concerns about the
erosion of personal autonomy and the normalization of constant surveillance.
✓ Discrimination and bias: Biometric regulations may not adequately address issues of discrimination and bias inherent in biometric systems.
Biometric technologies have been shown to exhibit biases based on factors such as race, gender, and age, which can result in disparate
treatment and harm to marginalized groups. Regulations may fail to sufficiently address these biases, perpetuating inequalities and
reinforcing existing social hierarchies.

✓ Exclusion and marginalization: Strict biometric regulations may inadvertently exclude certain groups or individuals from accessing
essential services or participating fully in society. For example, individuals who are unable to provide biometric identifiers due to disabilities
or other reasons may face barriers to accessing services or exercising their rights, leading to further marginalization and exclusion.

✓ Normalization of surveillance culture: Biometric regulations that promote the widespread adoption of biometric technologies in various
sectors may contribute to the normalization of a surveillance culture. Acceptance of biometric identification and monitoring as routine
practices may undermine the value of privacy and individual autonomy, leading to a society where constant surveillance is seen as the norm
rather than the exception.

✓ Chilling effect on dissent: Biometric regulations applied in certain contexts, such as political activism or dissent, may have a chilling effect
on freedom of expression and association. Individuals may fear retribution or surveillance by authorities if their biometric data is used to
monitor their activities or track their movements, leading to self-censorship and reluctance to engage in legitimate forms of expression or
protest.

✓ Data security risks: Biometric regulations may not adequately address the risks of data breaches and misuse of biometric data. Despite
regulatory requirements for data security, biometric systems remain vulnerable to hacking, identity theft, and other forms of cybercrime.
Weaknesses in security measures or compliance with regulations could lead to unauthorized access to biometric databases, compromising
individuals' privacy and security.
Responsibilities of the Information Systems Manager
 Information Systems Manager

An information systems manager knows everything about hardware and software. They oversee the use of technology in a
business or organization and their primary role is to design, manage, and monitor information systems by overseeing a team of
specialists who install and maintain hardware and software upgrades.
Qualifications and Skills Information Systems Manager

✓ Leadership

✓ Problem solving

✓ Negotiation tactics

✓ Interpersonal communication

✓ Systems management

✓ IT project management
 Responsibilities
✓ Managing IT department budget and prioritizing funds based on primary department goals

✓ Hiring and training IT professionals, such as support specialists, network engineers, IT analysts and technicians, to work as
members of the IT department

✓ Monitoring the productivity and performance levels of IT employees and conducting performance reviews

✓ Maintaining efficient relationships with other department heads to determine their technology needs

✓ Delegating repair and installation requests among IT employees

✓ Monitoring inventory of available hardware devices or computer accessories to assess purchasing needs

✓ Creating long-term schedules to determine when to update company computer systems and cybersecurity measures
✓ Researching new business technologies and IT software to strengthen the organization's computer systems

✓ Creating surveys to gauge company employee IT needs and questions

✓ Drafting informational documents to help company employees troubleshoot standard computer problems and navigate new
programs

✓ Meeting with IT directors and other upper-management staff to propose ideas and relay information to the IT department

✓ Assisting IT employees with complex installations or repairs

✓ Implementing new software programs and computer technologies that support organizational goals and objectives
QUESTION 1
a) Explain the three fundamental tenets of ethics.
i. Responsibility
ii. Accountability
iii. Liability.
b) Giving examples explain the six types of computer abuses that employees commit in their work places
c) Discuss the three major Ethical Decision Theories used to guide professionals.
QUESTION 2
a. How best do you define the following terms as used in Professional and Social Issues in Computing?
i. A profession
ii. Professionals
iii. Safety-Critical System
iv. Professional Ethics
a. The computing profession has professional societies which include: ACM and IEEE. You are requested to;
i. Write in full ACM and IEEE
ii. In regard to ACM list the five ethical and professional manner that we agree to commit too
b. List the six applicable areas where the safety-critical software systems can typically be applied.
QUESTION 3
a. When we say information is held in confidence, and therefore confidential, we have an expectation that it will be shared only after
authorization is provided, and then only with authorized individuals. Most confidentiality agreements, either written or implied (as
with the attorney-client privilege, for example), remain in effect indefinitely. You are hereby required to;
i. Come up with a scenario and explain well how confidentiality can be exercised.
ii. How best can you distinguish between Privacy and Confidentiality?
iii. What are the three possible causes of Data Integrity?
iv. Why do we need a class on Professional ethics, Discus?
v. Why are Ethical questions difficult to answer?
vi. With clear examples differentiate between fabrication and falsification
QUESTION 4
a) Briefly explain the following key terms as used in professional and social issues in computing
i. Ethics
ii. Professional ethics
iii. Computer ethics
b) List the major 5 objectives of codes of ethics?
c) Briefly explain the following key terms as used in professional and social issues in computing
i. Morality
ii. Directives
References
i. Baase, S., 2008. A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal & Ethical Issues for Computing & the Internet.
2nd Edition. Pearson Education.
ii. Cushway, B., 2009. The Employers’ Handbook: An Essential Guide to Employment Law.
Personnel Policies & Procedures. 6th Edition. Kogan Page.
iii. Ayres, R. & Davies, J., 2005. The Essence of Professional Issues in Computing. 2nd
Edition. Prentice Hall.
iv. Quinn, M., 2005. Ethics for the Information Age. 3rd Edition. Pearson Publishers.