What is a Structured Query Language (SQL)?

SQL is a standard language for storing, retrieving and manipulating data on a

relational database. All the relational database like MySql, Oracle, MS Access,
SQL server uses Structured query language(SQL) for accessing and
manipulating data.

SQL provides wide range of effective command to perform all sort of required
operations on data such as create tables, insert record, view recodes, update,
alter, delete, drop, etc.

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What is DDL and DML?

All the SQL commands are categorized into five categories: DDL,DML,DCL,DQL,TCL. In this
course we are going to cover only DDL and DML commands in detail.

Data definition Language(DDL): Data Definition Language actually consists of the SQL
commands that can be used to define the database schema. It simply deals with
descriptions of the database schema and is used to create and modify the structure of
database objects in the database. Example: Create, Drop, Alter, Truncate.

Data Manipulation Language(DML): The SQL commands that deals with the manipulation of
data present in the database belong to DML or Data Manipulation Language and this
includes most of the SQL statements. Example: Insert, Delete, Update.

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Data Types in MySQL

Data stored in a database table are of different types, As SQL developers we have chose the suitable data
types for each field while defining a table. SQL offers supports a wide range of data types from which the
developer can choose the most appropriate data types for each column.

char(size): used for fixed length string data.

Example: A column defined as char(10) , it can contain string values of maximum 10 length. SQL allocates 10
bytes of memory irrespective of legth of data to be stored.

varchar(size): used for variable length string data.

Example: If a column defined as varchar(10) , SQL allocates maximum 10 bytes to each value, but bytes
allocated may vary depending on the length of data.
int( ): Used for integer/digits data without decimal. Can accommodate maximum 11 digit numbers.
float(M,D): Permits real numbers upto M digits, out of which may be D digits after decimal .
Example: a column data type defined as float(6,3) may have 234.684
Date: used to store date in YYYY-MM-DD format.
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Constraints:
constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table. Commonly used
constraints are:
Not Null- Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value
Unique- Ensures that all values in a column are different
Primary Key- A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row in a
table
Foreign Key- Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables
Check - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition
Default- Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

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MySql Commands:
CREATE Database: Used to create a new database.
Syntax: CREATE DATABASE <database name>
e.g. CREATE Database MySchool;

SHOW Databases: Used to list all existing databases.

Syntax: SHOW Databases;

DROP Database: Used to delete an existing database.

Syntax: DROP Database <databasename>
e.g. DROP Database MyStore;

USE Database: Used to select/enter a existing database.

e.g. USE MySchool;

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MySql Commands:
Show Tables: After a database has been selected this command can be Used to list all the
tables in the database. e.g. SHOW TABLES;

CREATE Table: Syntax: CREATE TABLE <table name>( column1 datatype, column2 datatype,
column3 datatype, .... columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns ) );

E.g. CREATE TABLE cs_students(sid int(3), sname varchar(30), sclass int(2), smark int(3), skill
varchar(30), primary key(sid));

Note: Constraints other then Primary Key can also be specified when required
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MySql Commands:
Creating a table with multiple constraints:

CREATE TABLE Employee (Eid int(5) Primary Key,

Ename varchar(30) Not Null,
age int(2),
Dept varchar(20) Default “Manufacturing”,
contactno int(10) unique,
Constraint ChkAge Check(Age>18));

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MySql Commands:

DESCRIBE Tables: A DDL command to display the structure of the table.

Syntax: DESCRIBE <table name>;

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MySql Commands:
ALTER Tables: ALTER TABLE is a DDL command that can change the structure of the table.
Using ALTER TABLE command we can add, delete or modify the attributes/constraints of a
table.

Adding a column using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD column <Column Name Data type>;

Deleting a column using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> DROP column <Column Name >;

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MySql Commands:
Modify a column using Alter table:
Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> MODIFY column <Column Name Data type>;
E.g. MODIFY the data type of an existing column

Adding a Primary Key Constraint using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD Primary Key (<column names>);

Drop Primary Key Constraint using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> DROP Primary Key;

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MySql Commands:
DROP Tables: DROP TABLE is a DDL command used to delete a table from the database.
Syntax: DROP TABLE <table name>;
E.g. DROP Table Employee;

INSERT INTO: INSERT is a DML command used to insert a new record/row in an existing
table.
Syntax: INSERT INTO <Table Name> values (val1,val2,val3..);

Insert a new record in the table with specific field value.

Syntax: INSERT INTO <Table Name> (Column1,Column2,..ColumnN) values (val1,val2,..valN);

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MySql Commands:
SELECT Command: Used to retrieve and Table: cs_students

display data from the tables.

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2,..

FROM <Table Name>;
E.g. SELECT sid, sname FROM cs_students;
[Here only sid and sname column has been
selected]

To Select all the columns from the table:

SELECT * FROM <Table Name>;

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MySql Commands:
WHERE Clause: The WHERE Clause can be used with SELECT command to select the data
from the table based on some condition.

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2,.. E.g. Select * From cs_students WHERE smark>90;
FROM <Table Name>
WHERE <condition>;

Operators for Where Clause :

Mathematical: +, -, *, /
Relational: >, >=, <, <=, =, <>
Logical: AND, OR, NOT

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Where Clause Examples:
To select ID and Name of the students whose skill is Database:

Using Logical Operators in Where clause:

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IN Operator: Used To specify multiple possible values for a column
E.g. Select * from cs_student where skill in(“Networking”, ”Database”);

BETWEEN Operator: Used To specify values in a certain range.

E.g. Select * from cs_student where smark BETWEEN 95 AND 100;

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DISTINCT Clause: Used to retrieve the distinct values in a field.
Syntax: Select * from student where mark is null;

ORDER BY: It is used to sort the data in ascending or descending order. By default ORDER BY sort the
data in ascending order, for descending order we need to use ”DESC”.

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Handling NULL Values: To handle NULL entries in a field we can use “IS” and “IS NOT”, as NULL value
is a Value which is Unknown so we can use =, <> operators to select NULL values.

Lets Consider the Employee table above, to select all the employees whose salary is specified as
NULL in the salary field we must use IS NULL operator.

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LIKE OPERATOR: LIKE is used for string matching in MySql, it can be used for comparison of
character strings using pattern. LIKE uses the following two wildcard characters to create string
patterns.
• Percent(%): used to match a substring of any length.
• Underscore( _ ): Used to match any single character.
The LIKE keyword selects the rows having column values that matches with the wildcard pattern.

e.g. To select details of employees whose name start with the letter “S”.

To select details of employees whose name ends with the letter “l” and has exactly a 5 characters name.

Note: Patterns are case sensitive, upper case characters do not match with lower case characters or vice-versa.
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Update Command : UPDATE is a DML command used to change values in the rows of a existing
table. It specifies the rows to be changed using WHERE clause and the new values to be updated
using SET keyword.
Syntax: UPDATE <Table Name> SET column=<new value> WHERE <condition>
E.g. To change the salary to 70000 of the employee having Eid 204.
UPDATE employee SET salary=70000 WHERE Eid=204.

To change the Department of an employee

UPDATE employee SET Dept=“Marketing” where Ename=“Kunal”;

Employee Table before Update. Employee Table after Update

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Delete Command :
Delete is a DML command used to delete rows of an existing table. It specifies the
rows to be deleted using WHERE clause.

Syntax: DELETE FROM <Table Name> WHERE <condition;

To delete the record/row of the employee having Eid 204.

DELETE FROM employee WHERE Eid=204;

To delete the records of all the employee working in Sales Department.

DELETE FROM employee WHERE Dept=“salary”;

To delete all rows of employee table

DELETE FROM employee;

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Aggregate Functions :

MySql supports the following aggregate/multiple row functions:

• count( ): returns the number of rows in the given column or expression.

• min( ): returns the minimum value in the given column or expression.

• max( ): returns the maximum value in the given column or expression.

• sum( ): returns the sum of values in the given column or expression.

• avg( ): returns the average of values in the given column or expression.

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Aggregate Functions Example:
Let us Consider the employee table:

Queries Output
SELECT sum(salary) FROM employee; 80000
SELECT avg(salary) FROM employee; 26666.6666
SELECT max(salary) FROM employee; 32000
SELECT min(salary) FROM employee; 23000
SELECT count(salary) FROM employee; 3
SELECT count(*) FROM employee; 5
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GROUP BY:
Table: cs_students
• GROUP BY clause combines all those records
that have identical values in a particular field or
a group of fields.
• It is used in SELECT statement to divide the
table into groups. Grouping can be done by a
column name or with aggregate functions.

For Example let up consider the cs_students table, To find

the number of students in each skill, we can use the
command.
SELECT skill, count(*) from cs_students GROUP BY skill;

Here the GROUP BY clause creates 3 groups

based on skill values and then the aggregate
function count(*) is independently applied to
each group.
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GROUP BY Examples:
TABLE: Employee
When used with GROUP BY clause, the
aggregate functions perform calculations on
groups of rows (formed by GROUP BY), and
hence returns a single value for each group.
Let us consider the employee table, To find the average
salary of employees of each department, we can use the
command.
SELECT dept, avg(salary) from employee GROUP BY dept;

Here the GROUP BY clause creates 3 groups

based on department values and then the
aggregate function avg(salary) is independently
applied to the salary field of each group to
calculate average salary of each group of rows.

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HAVING Clause: Table: cs_students

HAVING clause is used to apply conditions on

groups in contrast to WHERE clause which is
used to apply conditions on individual rows.
Let us consider the cs_students table, To find the average
marks of the group of students having a particular skill ,
where the skill group must have at least 5 students.

SELECT skill, avg(smark) FROM cs_students GROUP BY skill

HAVING count(*)>=5;

Out of 3 groups created by GROUP BY clause,

two groups have been removed from result set
as they have not satisfied the condition
mentioned in HAVING clause.

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HAVING Examples:
Conditions in having clause may contain a Boolean
expression or aggregate functions can be used to specify the Table: Employee
condition.
We can also use more then one condition in HAVING clause
by using logical operators.

Let us consider the employee table, To find the average

salary of employees of each department, where the average
age of all the employees working in the department is less
then 32.
SELECT dept,avg(salary) FROM employee GROUP BY dept
HAVING avg(age)>32;

Out of 3 groups created by GROUP BY clause,

one group is filtered out of the result because it
doesn’t satisfy the condition mentioned in
HAVING clause.

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JOIN:
A JOIN clause combines rows from two or more tables. In a join query, more
then one table are listed in FORM clause.

Types of Join Operation:

• Cartesian product on two tables,
• Equi-join
• Natural join

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Cartesian Product (X):

The Cartesian Product operation of two tables produces all possible concatenations of all
the rows of both tables.
The Cartesian product(also known as Cross Join) multiplies all rows present in the first
table with all the rows present in the second table

Table 1 Table 2
Syntax: SELECT * FROM Table1,Table2; 1
1
Or 2
2
3
SELECT * FROM Table1 CROSS JOIN Table2;

The Cardinality of cartesian product of two relations R1 and R2 is equal to the

multiplication of cardinalities of R1 and R2. Whereas The Degree of cartesian Product is
equal to addition of degrees of R1 and R2.
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Cartesian Product (X) Example:
Let us Consider the Cartesian Product/Cross Join the of following Customer and Order Tables
Table: Customer Result of Cartesian Product

Table: Orders

The Cardinality of Customer Table is 4 and Degree is 3.

The Cardinality of Orders Table is 3 and Degree is 3.
Hence Cardinality of Cartesian Product Result set is 12 (4*3)
and Degree is 6 (3+3)
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Equi Join :

To perform Equi/Inner Join on two relations R1 and R2, we have to specify a equality condition using
the common attribute in both the relations R1 and R2. Syntax: SELECT * FROM R1 Inner Join R2.
Table: Customer Table: Orders

Result of Equi/ Inner Join

Equi join resultset contains
only those rows from both
the tables which have
matching value in the
common attribute (Custid)
mentioned in the equality
condition.

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Natural Join :

The Join in which only one of the identical columns(coming from joined tables) exists, is called as
Natural Join.
The Equi Join and Natural join are equivalent except that duplicate columns are eliminated in the
Natural Join that would otherwise appear in Equi Join. Table: Orders
Syntax: SELECT * FROM Table1 Natural Join Table2
Performing natural Join on Customer and Orders Table, results
in selecting only those rows from both the tables which have
matching values in common attribute CustId.

Result of Natural Join

Table: Customer

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Examples on Join :
Table: Customer Table: Orders

To display the Customer Id, Customer Name and order Quantity of those Customers having minimum
order quantity of 20.
Solution Using Cartesian Product:

Solution using Natural Join:

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Examples on Join :
Table: Customer Table: Orders

To display the OrderID along with the customer name and city of the customers having order quantity
less then 20.
Solution Using Cartesian Product:

Solution using Natural Join:

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