Databases

Database Concepts
Relational databases
• A relational database (RDBMS) is a collection of data organized into tables with rows
and columns.
• It's a way to store and manage data in a structured way, making it easier to
understand how different data sets relate to each other.
• RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management Systems.

• The data in common databases is modeled in tables, making querying and processing
efficient.
• It is a program that allows us to create, delete, and update a relational database.
• A Relational Database is a database system that stores and retrieves data in a
tabular format organized in the form of rows and columns.
• It is a smaller subset of DBMS which was designed by E.F Codd in the 1970s.
• The major DBMSs like SQL, My-SQL, and ORACLE are all based on the principles
of relational DBMS.
Features of RDBMS
•Data must be stored in tabular form in DB file, that is, it should be organized in the
form of rows and columns.
•Each row of table is called record/tuple . Collection of such records is known as the
cardinality of the table
•Each column of the table is called an attribute/field. Collection of such columns is
called the arity of the table.
•No two records of the DB table can be same. Data duplicity is therefore avoided by
using a candidate key. Candidate Key is a minimum set of attributes required to identify
each record uniquely.
•Tables are related to each other with the help for foreign keys.
•Database tables also allow NULL values, that is if the values of any of the element of
the table are not filled or are missing, it becomes a NULL value, which is not equivalent
to zero. (NOTE: Primary key cannot have a NULL value).

SQL
•SQL, or Structured Query Language, is a programming language used to store,
retrieve, and manipulate data in relational databases.
•It is a standard Database language that is used to create, maintain, and retrieve the
relational database.
•SQL is a powerful language that can be used to carry out a wide range of operations
like insert ,delete and update.
SQL is mainly divided into four main categories:
1.Data definition language 2.Data manipulation language
3.Transaction control language 4.Data query language
Uses of SQL
•Data storage: SQL is used to store information in a database in tabular form, with
rows and columns representing different data attributes.
•Data retrieval: SQL is used to retrieve specific data items or a range of items from a
database.
•Data manipulation: SQL is used to add new data, remove or modify existing data.
•Access control: SQL is used to restrict a user's ability to retrieve, add, and modify
data.
•Data sharing: SQL is used to coordinate data sharing by concurrent users.
Components of a SQL System
A SQL system consists of several key components that work together to enable
efficient data storage, retrieval, and manipulation.
Some of the Key components of a SQL System are:
•Databases: Databases are structured collections of data organized into tables, rows,
and columns.
•Tables: Tables are the fundamental building blocks of a database, consisting of rows
(records) and columns (attributes or fields).
•Queries: Queries are SQL commands used to interact with databases.

Components of a SQL System

They enable users to retrieve, update, insert, or delete data from tables, allowing for
efficient data manipulation and retrieval.
•Constraints: Constraints are rules applied to tables to maintain data integrity.
Constraints define conditions that data must meet to be stored in the database,
ensuring accuracy and consistency.
•Stored Procedures: Stored procedures are pre-compiled SQL statements stored in
the database.
•Transactions: Transactions are groups of SQL statements that are executed as a
single unit of work. Transactions ensure data consistency and integrity by allowing for
the rollback of changes if any part of the transaction fails.

Characteristics of SQL
•User-Friendly and Accessible, Declarative Language
•Efficient Database Management, Standardized Language
•SQL does not require a continuation character for multi-line queries, allowing
flexibility in writing commands across one or multiple lines.
•Queries are executed using a termination character (e.g., a semicolon ;), enabling
immediate and accurate command processing.
•SQL includes a rich set of built-in functions for data manipulation, aggregation, and
formatting, empowering users to handle diverse data-processing needs effectively.

Database Management Systems (DBMS)

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software system that helps users
manage, create, define, and manipulate databases.
It is used to store, organize, and retrieve large amounts of data in an efficient and
organized manner.
It allows users to create, modify, and query a database, as well as manage the security
and access controls for that database.

Characteristics of a DBMS:
•Data storage: DBMS uses a digital repository on a server to store and manage
information.
•Data manipulation: DBMS provides a logical and clear view of the process that
manipulates data.
•Data security: DBMS provides data security.
•Data backup and recovery: DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery
procedures.
•ACID properties: DBMS contains ACID properties that maintain data in a healthy
state in case of failure.
•Concurrency control: In multi-user environments, DBMS manages concurrent access
to the database to prevent conflicts and ensure data consistency.

Types of DBMS
•Relational Database Management System RDBMS
•NoSQL DBMS
•Object-oriented database management system (OODBMS): This DBMS is based on
the principles of object-oriented programming.
•Hierarchical DBMS: This type of DBMS stores data in a parent-children relationship
node.
•Multi-model DBMS: This system supports more than one database model.

Application of Database
•Banking: Manages accounts, transactions, and financial records.
•Airlines: Handles bookings, schedules, and availability.
•E-commerce: Supports catalogs, orders, and secure transactions.
•Healthcare: Stores patient records and billing.
•Education: Manages student data and course enrollments.
•Telecom: Tracks call records and billing.
•Government: Maintains census and taxation data.
•Social Media: Stores user profiles and posts efficiently.

Key Features of DBMS

•Data modeling: A DBMS provides tools for creating and modifying data models, which
define the structure and relationships of the data in a database.
•Data storage and retrieval: A DBMS is responsible for storing and retrieving data
from the database, and can provide various methods for searching and querying the
data.
•Data integrity and security: A DBMS provides tools for enforcing data integrity and
security constraints, such as constraints on the values of data and access controls
that restrict who can access the data.
•Backup and recovery: A DBMS provides mechanisms for backing up and recovering
the data in the event of a system failure.

Database Languages
•Data Definition Language
•Data Manipulation Language
•Data Control Language
•Transactional Control Language

Data Definition Language (DDL)

DDL is the short name for Data Definition Language, which deals with database
schemas and descriptions, of how the data should reside in the database.
•CREATE: to create a database and its objects like (table, index, views, store
procedure, function, and triggers)
•ALTER: alters the structure of the existing database DROP: delete objects from the
database
•TRUNCATE: remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed
•COMMENT: add comments to the data dictionary
•RENAME: rename an object
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
includes most common SQL statements such SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE, etc., and it is used to store, modify, retrieve, delete and update data in a
database.
Data query language(DQL) is the subset of “Data Manipulation Language”.
The most common command of DQL is SELECT statement. SELECT statement
helps in retrieving the data from the table without changing anything in the table.
•SELECT: retrieve data from a database
•INSERT: insert data into a table
•UPDATE: updates existing data within a table
•DELETE: Delete all records from a database table
•MERGE: UPSERT operation (insert or update)
•CALL: call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
•LOCK TABLE: concurrency Control

Data Control Language (DCL)

DCL is short for Data Control Language which acts as an access specifier to the
database. (basically to grant and revoke permissions to users in the database)
•GRANT: grant permissions to the user for running DML(SELECT, INSERT,
DELETE,…) commands on the table
•REVOKE: revoke permissions to the user for running DML(SELECT, INSERT,
DELETE,…) command on the specified table

Transactional Control Language (TCL)

TCL is short for Transactional Control Language which acts as an manager for
all types of transactional data and all transactions. Some of the command of
TCL are
•Roll Back: Used to cancel or Undo changes made in the database
•Commit: It is used to apply or save changes in the database
•Save Point: It is used to save the data on the temporary basis in the database
Advantages of DBMS
•Data organization: A DBMS allows for the organization and storage of data in a
structured manner, making it easy to retrieve and query the data as needed.
•Data integrity: A DBMS provides mechanisms for enforcing data integrity
constraints, such as constraints on the values of data and access controls that restrict
who can access the data.
•Concurrent access: A DBMS provides mechanisms for controlling concurrent access
to the database, to ensure that multiple users can access the data without conflicting
with each other.
•Data security: A DBMS provides tools for managing the security of the data, such as
controlling access to the data and encrypting sensitive data.
•Backup and recovery: A DBMS provides mechanisms for backing up and recovering
the data in the event of a system failure.
•Data sharing: A DBMS allows multiple users to access and share the same data,
which can be useful in a collaborative work environment.

Disadvantages of DBMS
•Complexity: DBMS can be complex to set up and maintain, requiring specialized
knowledge and skills.
•Performance overhead: The use of a DBMS can add overhead to the performance of
an application, especially in cases where high levels of concurrency are required.
•Scalability: The use of a DBMS can limit the scalability of an application, since it
requires the use of locking and other synchronization mechanisms to ensure data
consistency.
•Cost: The cost of purchasing, maintaining and upgrading a DBMS can be high,
especially for large or complex systems.
•Limited Use Cases: Not all use cases are suitable for a DBMS, some solutions don’t
need high reliability, consistency or security and may be better served by other types of
data storage.
Data Structures
Some of the important data structures are as under:

Arrays
Array is a collection of items of the same variable type that are stored at contiguous
memory locations.
It is one of the most popular and simple data structures used in programming.

Basic terminologies of Array

•Array Index: In an array, elements are identified by their indexes. Array index
starts from 0.
•Array element: Elements are items stored in an array and can be accessed by their
index.
•Array Length: The length of an array is determined by the number of elements it
can contain.

Memory representation of Array

In an array, all the elements are stored in contiguous memory locations. So, if we
initialize an array, the elements will be allocated sequentially in memory.
This allows for efficient access and manipulation of elements.

Types of Arrays
Arrays can be classified in two ways:
•On the basis of Size
•On the basis of Dimensions
•One-dimensional Array (1-D Array): You can imagine a 1-d array as a row, where
elements are stored one after another.
.Multi-dimensional Array: A multi-dimensional array is an array with more than one
dimension.
We can use multidimensional array to store complex data in the form of tables, etc. We
can have 2-D arrays, 3-D arrays, 4-D arrays and so on.
•Two-Dimensional Array (2-D Array or Matrix): 2-D Multidimensional arrays can be
considered as an array of arrays or as a matrix consisting of rows and columns.
•Three-Dimensional Array (3-D Array): A 3-D Multidimensional array contains three
dimensions, so it can be considered an array of two-dimensional arrays.

Applications of Array Data Structure

Arrays mainly have advantages like random access and cache friendliness over other
data structures that make them useful.
Below are some applications of arrays.
•Storing and accessing data: Arrays store elements in a specific order and allow
constant-time O(1) access to any element.
•Searching: If data in array is sorted, we can search an item in O(log n) time. We can
also find floor(), ceiling(), kth smallest, kth largest, etc efficiently.
•Matrices: Two-dimensional arrays are used for matrices in computations like graph
algorithms and image processing.
•Implementing other data structures: Arrays are used as the underlying data structure
for implementing stacks and queues.
•Dynamic programming: Dynamic programming algorithms often use arrays to store
intermediate results of sub-problems in order to solve a larger problem.
•Data Buffers: Arrays serve as data buffers and queues, temporarily storing incoming
data like network packets, file streams, and database results before processing.

Linked Lists
A linked list is a fundamental data structure in computer science.
It mainly allows efficient insertion and deletion operations compared to arrays.
Like arrays, it is also used to implement other data structures like stack, queue and
deque
Comparison between Linked Lists and Arrays
Features of Linked List:
•Data Structure: Non-contiguous
•Memory Allocation: Typically allocated one by one to individual elements
•Insertion/Deletion: Efficient
•Access: Sequential

Features of Array:
•Data Structure: Contiguous
•Memory Allocation: Typically allocated to the whole array
•Insertion/Deletion: Inefficient
•Access: Random

Types of Linked Lists

a) Singly Linked List
A singly linked list is a fundamental data structure.
It consists of nodes where each node contains a data field and a reference to the next
node in the linked list.
The next of the last node is null, indicating the end of the list.
Linked Lists support efficient insertion and deletion operations.

Understanding Node Structure

In a singly linked list, each node consists of two parts: data and a pointer to the next
node. This structure allows nodes to be dynamically linked together, forming a chain-
like sequence.

Operations on Singly Linked List

•Traversal
•Searching
•Length
•Insertion Deletion:
•Insert at the beginning •Delete from the beginning
•Insert at the end •Delete from the end
•Insert at a specific position •Delete a specific node
b)Doubly Linked List
•A doubly linked list is a more complex data structure than a singly linked list, but it
offers several advantages.
•The main advantage of a doubly linked list is that it allows for efficient traversal of the
list in both directions.
•This is because each node in the list contains a pointer to the previous node and a
pointer to the next node.
•This allows for quick and easy insertion and deletion of nodes from the list, as well as
efficient traversal of the list in both directions.
•A doubly linked list is a data structure that consists of a set of nodes, each of which
contains a value and two pointers, one pointing to the previous node in the list and one
pointing to the next node in the list.
•This allows for efficient traversal of the list in both directions, making it suitable for
applications where frequent insertions and deletions are required.

Operations on Doubly Linked List Deletion in Doubly Linked List:

•Traversal in Doubly Linked List • Deletion of a node at the
•Searching in Doubly Linked List beginning of Doubly Linked List
•Finding Length of Doubly Linked List • Deletion of a node at the end of
•Insertion in Doubly Linked List Doubly Linked List
• Insertion at the beginning of Doubly Linked List • Deletion of a node at a specific
• Insertion at the end of the Doubly Linked List position in Doubly Linked List
• Insertion at a specific position in Doubly Linked
List
c) Circular Linked List
A circular linked list is a data structure where the last node connects back to the first,
forming a loop.
This structure allows for continuous traversal without any interruptions.
Circular linked lists are especially helpful for tasks like scheduling and managing
playlists, this allowing for smooth navigation.
A circular linked list is a special type of linked list where all the nodes are connected to
form a circle.
Unlike a regular linked list, which ends with a node pointing to NULL, the last node in a
circular linked list points back to the first node.
This means that you can keep traversing the list without ever reaching a NULL value.

Applications of Linked Lists in real world:

•The list of songs in the music player are linked to the previous and next songs.
•In a web browser, previous and next web page URLs can be linked through the
previous and next buttons (Doubly Linked List)
•In image viewer, the previous and next images can be linked with the help of the
previous and next buttons (Doubly Linked List)

Stacks
•A Stack is a linear data structure that follows a particular order in which the
operations are performed.
•The order may be LIFO(Last In First Out) or FILO(First In Last Out).
•LIFO implies that the element that is inserted last, comes out first and FILO implies
that the element that is inserted first, comes out last.
•It behaves like a stack of plates, where the last plate added is the first one to be
removed.
1.Pushing an element onto the stack is like adding a new plate on top.
2.Popping an element removes the top plate from the stack.
Types of Stack
Fixed Size Stack : As the name suggests, a fixed size stack has a fixed size and
cannot grow or shrink dynamically.
•If the stack is full and an attempt is made to add an element to it, an overflow error
occurs.
•If the stack is empty and an attempt is made to remove an element from it, an
underflow error occurs.
Dynamic Size Stack : A dynamic size stack can grow or shrink dynamically.
•When the stack is full, it automatically increases its size to accommodate the new
element, and when the stack is empty, it decreases its size.
•This type of stack is implemented using a linked list, as it allows for easy resizing of
the stack.

Basic Operations on Stack

In order to make manipulations in a stack, there are certain operations provided to us.
•push() to insert an element into the stack
•pop() to remove an element from the stack
•top() Returns the top element of the stack.
•is Empty() returns true if stack is empty else false.
•isFull() returns true if the stack is full else false.
To implement stack, we need to maintain reference to the top item.
Queues
•A Queue Data Structure is a fundamental concept in computer science used for
storing and managing data in a specific order.
•It follows the principle of "First in, First out" (FIFO), where the first element added to
the queue is the first one to be removed.
•Queues are commonly used in various algorithms and applications for their simplicity
and efficiency in managing data flow.

Basic Operations on Queue:

Some of the basic operations for Queue in Data Structure are:
•enqueue() – Insertion of elements to the queue.
•dequeue() – Removal of elements from the queue.
•peek() or front()- Acquires the data element available at the front node of the queue
without deleting it.
•rear() – This operation returns the element at the rear end without removing it.
•isFull() – Validates if the queue is full.
•isEmpty() – Checks if the queue is empty.
•size(): This operation returns the size of the queue i.e. the total number of elements it
contains.

Types of Queues:
There are five different types of queues that are used in different scenarios. They are:
1.Input Restricted Queue (this is a Simple Queue)
2.Output Restricted Queue (this is also a Simple Queue)
3.Circular Queue
4.Double Ended Queue (Deque)
5.Priority Queue
•Ascending Priority Queue
•Descending Priority Queue

1.Circular Queue
•Circular Queue is a linear data structure in which the operations are performed based
on FIFO (First In First Out) principle and the last position is connected back to the first
position to make a circle.
•It is also called ‘Ring Buffer’.

2.Input restricted Queue

•In this type of Queue, the input can be taken from one side only(rear) and deletion of
elements can be done from both sides(front and rear).
•This kind of Queue does not follow FIFO(first in first out).
•This queue is used in cases where the consumption of the data needs to be in FIFO
order but if there is a need to remove the recently inserted data for some reason and
one such case can be irrelevant data, performance issue, etc.

3.Output restricted Queue

•In this type of Queue, the input can be taken from both sides(rear and front) and the
deletion of the element can be done from only one side(front).
•This queue is used in the case where the inputs have some priority order to be executed
and the input can be placed even in the first place so that it is executed first.
4.Double ended Queue
•Double Ended Queue is also a Queue data structure in which the insertion and deletion
operations are performed at both the ends (front and rear).
•That means, we can insert at both front and rear positions and can delete from both
front and rear positions.
•Since Deque supports both stack and queue operations, it can be used as both.
•The Deque data structure supports clockwise and anticlockwise rotations in O(1) time
which can be useful in certain applications.
•Also, the problems where elements need to be removed and or added both ends can be
efficiently solved using Deque.

5.Priority Queue
•A priority queue is a special type of queue in which each element is associated with a
priority and is served according to its priority.
•There are two types of Priority Queues. They are:
a)Ascending Priority Queue: Element can be inserted arbitrarily but only smallest
element can be removed. For example, suppose there is an array having elements 4, 2,
8 in the same order. So, while inserting the elements, the insertion will be in the same
sequence but while deleting, the order will be 2, 4, 8.
b)Descending priority Queue: Element can be inserted arbitrarily but only the largest
element can be removed first from the given Queue. For example, suppose there is an
array having elements 4, 2, 8 in the same order. So, while inserting the elements, the
insertion will be in the same sequence but while deleting, the order will be 8, 4, 2.
The time complexity of the Priority Queue is O(logn).

Trees
•Tree data structure is a hierarchical structure that is used to represent and organize
data in the form of parent child relationship.
•The following are some real world situations which are naturally a tree.
a)Folder structure in an operating system.
b)Tag structure in an HTML (root tag the as html tag) or XML document.
•The topmost node of the tree is called the root, and the nodes below it are called the
child nodes.
•Each node can have multiple child nodes, and these child nodes can also have their
own child nodes, forming a recursive structure.

Basic Terminologies in Tree Data Structure

•Parent Node: The node which is an immediate predecessor of a node is called the
parent node of that node. {B} is the parent node of {D, E}.
•Child Node: The node which is the immediate successor of a node is called the child
node of that node. Examples: {D, E} are the child nodes of {B}.
•Root Node: The topmost node of a tree or the node which does not have any parent
node is called the root node. {A} is the root node of the tree. A non-empty tree must
contain exactly one root node and exactly one path from the root to all other nodes of
the tree.
•Leaf Node or External Node: The nodes which do not have any child nodes are called
leaf nodes. {I, J, K, F, G, H} are the leaf nodes of the tree.
•Ancestor of a Node: Any predecessor nodes on the path of the root to that node are
called Ancestors of that node. {A,B} are the ancestor nodes of the node {E}
•Descendant: A node x is a descendant of another node y if and only if y is an ancestor
of x.
•Sibling: Children of the same parent node are called siblings. {D,E} are called siblings.
•Level of a node: The count of edges on the path from the root node to that node. The
root node has level 0.
•Internal node: A node with at least one child is called Internal Node.
•Neighbour of a Node: Parent or child nodes of that node are called neighbors of that
node.
•Subtree: Any node of the tree along with its descendant.
Representation of Tree Data Structure:
•A tree consists of a root node, and zero or more subtrees T1, T2, … , Tk such that
there is an edge from the root node of the tree to the root node of each subtree.
•Subtree of a node X consists of all the nodes which have node X as the ancestor node.

Types of Tree data structures:

Tree data structure can be classified into three types based upon the number of
children each node of the tree can have. The types are:
•Binary tree: In a binary tree, each node can have a maximum of two children linked to
it. Some common types of binary trees include full binary trees, complete binary trees,
balanced binary trees, and degenerate or pathological binary trees.
Examples of Binary Tree are Binary Search Tree and Binary Heap.
•Ternary Tree: A Ternary Tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most
three child nodes, usually distinguished as “left”, “mid” and “right”.
•N-ary Tree or Generic Tree: Generic trees are a collection of nodes where each node
is a data structure that consists of records and a list of references to its
children(duplicate references are not allowed).
Unlike the linked list, each node stores the address of multiple nodes.
Basic Operations of Tree Data Structure:
•Create – create a tree in the data structure.
•Insert − Inserts data in a tree.
•Search − Searches specific data in a tree to check whether it is present or not.
•Traversal:
Depth-First-Search Traversal Breadth-First-Search Traversal
Alorithms:
Sorting Algorithms
•Sorting refers to arranging data in a particular format. Sorting algorithm specifies the
way to arrange data in a particular order.
•Most common orders are in numerical or lexicographical order.
•The importance of sorting lies in the fact that data searching can be optimized to a
very high level, if data is stored in a sorted manner.
•Sorting is also used to represent data in more readable formats.
In-place Sorting and Not-in-place Sorting
In-place Sorting:
•Sorting algorithms may require some extra space for comparison and temporary
storage of few data elements.
•These algorithms do not require any extra space and sorting is said to happen in-
place, or for example, within the array itself. This is called in-place sorting.
•Bubble sort is an example of in-place sorting.
Not-in-place Sorting:
•However, in some sorting algorithms, the program requires space which is more than
or equal to the elements being sorted.
•Sorting which uses equal or more space is called not-in-place sorting.
•Merge-sort is an example of not-in-place sorting.

Stable and Not Stable Sorting

Stable sorting:
If a sorting algorithm, after sorting the
contents, does not change the
sequence of similar content in which
they appear, it is called stable sorting.

Unstable sorting:
If a sorting algorithm, after sorting
the contents, changes the sequence
of similar content in which they
appear, it is called unstable sorting.
Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Sorting Algorithm
Adaptive Algorithm:
A sorting algorithm is said to be adaptive, if it takes advantage of already 'sorted'
elements in the list that is to be sorted.
That is, while sorting if the source list has some element already sorted, adaptive
algorithms will take this into account and will try not to re-order.
Non-adaptive algorithm:
A non-adaptive algorithm is one which does not take into account the elements which
are already sorted. They try to force every single element to be re-ordered to confirm
their sortedness.

Important Terms:
a) Increasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in increasing order, if the successive element is
greater than the previous one. For example, 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 are in increasing order, as
every next element is greater than the previous element.
b) Decreasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in decreasing order, if the successive element is less
than the current one. For example, 9, 8, 6, 4, 3, 1 are in decreasing order, as every
next element is less than the previous element.
c) Non-Increasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in non-increasing order, if the successive element is
less than or equal to its previous element in the sequence. This order occurs when the
sequence contains duplicate values. For example, 9, 8, 6, 3, 3, 1 are in non-increasing
order, as every next element is less than or equal to (in case of 3) but not greater than
any previous element.
d) Non-Decreasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in non-decreasing order, if the successive element is
greater than or equal to its previous element in the sequence. This order occurs when
the sequence contains duplicate values. For example, 1, 3, 3, 6, 8, 9 are in non-
decreasing order, as every next element is greater than or equal to (in case of 3) but
not less than the previous one.
Various Sorting Algorithms:
Bubble Sort
•Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm.
•This sorting algorithm is comparison-based algorithm in which each pair of adjacent
elements is compared and the elements are swapped if they are not in order.
•This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its average and worst case
complexity are of O(n2) where n is the number of items.
•Bubble Sort is an elementary sorting algorithm, which works by repeatedly
exchanging adjacent elements, if necessary.
•When no exchanges are required, the file is sorted.
Insertion Sort
•Insertion sort is a very simple method to sort numbers in an ascending or descending
order.
•This method follows the incremental method.
•It can be compared with the technique how cards are sorted at the time of playing a
game.
•This is an in-place comparison-based sorting algorithm.
•Here, a sub-list is maintained which is always sorted.
Selection sort
•Selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm.
•This sorting algorithm, like insertion sort, is an in-place comparison-based algorithm
in which the list is divided into two parts, the sorted part at the left end and the
unsorted part at the right end.
•Initially, the sorted part is empty and the unsorted part is the entire list.
•The smallest element is selected from the unsorted array and swapped with the
leftmost element, and that element becomes a part of the sorted array.
•This process continues moving unsorted array boundaries by one element to the
right.
•This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its average and worst case
complexities are of O(n2), where n is the number of items.
•This type of sorting is called Selection Sort as it works by repeatedly sorting
elements.
•That is we first find the smallest value in the array and exchange it with the element in
the first position, then find the second smallest element and exchange it with the
element in the second position, and we continue the process in this way until the entire
array is sorted.
Merge sort
•Merge sort is a sorting technique based on divide and conquer technique.
•With worst-case time complexity being Ο(n log n), it is one of the most used and
approached algorithms.
•Merge sort first divides the array into equal halves and then combines them in a sorted
manner.
•Merge sort keeps on dividing the list into equal halves until it can no more be divided.
•By definition, if it is only one element in the list, it is considered sorted.
•Then, merge sort combines the smaller sorted lists keeping the new list sorted too.
Shell sort
•Shell sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on insertion sort algorithm.
•This algorithm avoids large shifts as in case of insertion sort, if the smaller value is to the
far right and has to be moved to the far left.
•This algorithm uses insertion sort on a widely spread elements, first to sort them and
then sorts the less widely spaced elements. This spacing is termed as interval.
•This algorithm is quite efficient for medium-sized data sets as its average and worst case
complexity are of O(n), where n is the number of items
Heap Sort
•Heap Sort is an efficient sorting technique based on the heap data structure.
•The heap is a nearly-complete binary tree where the parent node could either be
minimum or maximum.
•The heap with minimum root node is called min-heap and the root node with maximum
root node is called max-heap.
•The elements in the input data of the heap sort algorithm are processed using these two
methods.
•The time complexity of the heap sort algorithm is O(nlogn), similar to merge sort.
Quick sort
•Quick sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on partitioning of array of
data into smaller arrays.
•A large array is partitioned into two arrays one of which holds values smaller than the
specified value, say pivot, based on which the partition is made and another array holds
values greater than the pivot value.
•Quick sort partitions an array and then calls itself recursively twice to sort the two
resulting subarrays.
•The worst case complexity of Quick-Sort algorithm is O(n2). However, using this
technique, in average cases generally we get the output in O (n log n) time.
Searching Algorithms
•Searching is a process of finding a particular record, which can be a single element or
a small chunk, within a huge amount of data.
•The data can be in various forms: arrays, linked lists, trees, heaps, and graphs etc.
•With the increasing amount of data nowadays, there are multiple techniques to perform
the searching operation.
•Searching Algorithms in Data Structures
•Various searching techniques can be applied on the data structures to retrieve certain
data.
•A search operation is said to be successful only if it returns the desired element or
data; otherwise, the searching method is unsuccessful.
There are two categories of searching techniques.
Sequential Searching
Interval Searching

Sequential Searching
•As the name suggests, the sequential searching operation traverses through each
element of the data sequentially to look for the desired data.
•The data need not be in a sorted manner for this type of search.
Example − Linear Search

Interval Searching
•Unlike sequential searching, the interval searching operation requires the data to be in
a sorted manner.
•This method usually searches the data in intervals; it could be done by either dividing
the data into multiple sub-parts or jumping through the indices to search for an element.
Example − Binary Search, Jump Search etc.
Various Searching Algorithms
a)Linear Search Algorithm
•Linear search is a type of sequential searching algorithm.
•In this method, every element within the input array is traversed and compared with the
key element to be found.
•If a match is found in the array the search is said to be successful; if there is no match
found the search is said to be unsuccessful and gives the worst-case time complexity.
•The algorithm for linear search is relatively simple.
•Linear search traverses through every element sequentially therefore, the best case is
when the element is found in the very first iteration.
•The best-case time complexity would be O(1).
•However, the worst case of the linear search method would be an unsuccessful search
that does not find the key value in the array, it performs n iterations.
•Therefore, the worst-case time complexity of the linear search algorithm would be
O(n).
b Binary Search Algorithm
•Binary search is a fast search algorithm with run-time complexity of Ο(log n).
•This search algorithm works on the principle of divide and conquer, since it divides the
array into half before searching.
•For this algorithm to work properly, the data collection should be in the sorted form.
•Binary search looks for a particular key value by comparing the middle most item of
the collection.
•If a match occurs, then the index of item is returned.
•But if the middle item has a value greater than the key value, the right sub-array of the
middle item is searched.
•Otherwise, the left sub-array is searched.
•This process continues recursively until the size of a subarray reduces to zero.
•Binary Search algorithm is an interval searching method that performs the searching
in intervals only.
•The input taken by the binary search algorithm
must always be in a sorted array since
it divides the array into subarrays
based on the greater or lower values.
•The time complexity of the binary
search algorithm is O(log n).
c) Interpolation Search Algorithm
•Interpolation search is an improved variant of binary search.
•This search algorithm works on the probing position of the required value.
•For this algorithm to work properly, the data collection should be in a sorted form and
equally distributed.
•Runtime complexity of interpolation search algorithm is Ο(log (log n)) as compared to
Ο(log n) of BST in favorable situations.
d) Jump Search Algorithm
•Jump Search algorithm is a slightly modified version of the linear search algorithm.
•The main idea behind this algorithm is to reduce the time complexity by comparing lesser
elements than the linear search algorithm.
•The input array is hence sorted and divided into blocks to perform searching while
jumping through these blocks.
•The time complexity of the jump search technique is O(√n) and space complexity is O(1).
e) Exponential Search Algorithm
•Exponential search algorithm targets a range of an input array in which it assumes that
the required element must be present in and performs a binary search on that particular
small range.
•This algorithm is also known as doubling search or finger search.
•It is similar to jump search in dividing the sorted input into multiple blocks and conducting
a smaller scale search.
•However, the difference occurs while performing computations to divide the blocks and
the type of smaller scale search applied (jump search applies linear search and
exponential search applies binary search).
•Hence, this algorithm jumps exponentially in the powers of 2.
•In simpler words, the search is performed on the blocks divided using pow(2, k) where k is
an integer greater than or equal to 0.
•Once the element at position pow(2, n) is greater than the key element, binary search is
performed on the current block.
•Even though it is called Exponential search it does not perform searching in exponential
time complexity.
•But as we know, in this search algorithm, the basic search being performed is binary
search.
•Therefore, the time complexity of the exponential search algorithm will be the same as
the binary search algorithm’s, O(log n).
f) Fibonacci Search Algorithm
•As the name suggests, the Fibonacci Search Algorithm uses Fibonacci numbers to
search for an element in a sorted input array.
•Fibonacci Series is a series of numbers that have two primitive numbers 0 and 1.
•The successive numbers are the sum of preceding two numbers in the series.
•This is an infinite constant series, therefore, the numbers in it are fixed.
•The main idea behind the Fibonacci series is also to eliminate the least possible places
where the element could be found.
•In a way, it acts like a divide & conquer algorithm (logic being the closest to binary
search algorithm).
•This algorithm, like jump search and exponential search, also skips through the indices
of the input array in order to perform searching.
•The Fibonacci Search Algorithm makes use of the Fibonacci Series to diminish the
range of an array on which the searching is set to be performed.
•With every iteration, the search range decreases making it easier to locate the element
in the array.
•The Fibonacci Search algorithm takes logarithmic time complexity to search for an
element.
•Since it is based on a divide on a conquer approach and is similar to idea of binary
search, the time taken by this algorithm to be executed under the worst case
consequences is O(log n).
g) Sublist Search Algorithm
•Until now we have only seen how to search for one element in a sequential order of
elements.
•But the sublist search algorithm provides a procedure to search for a linked list in
another linked list.
•It works like any simple pattern matching algorithm where the aim is to determine
whether one list is present in the other list or not.
•The algorithm walks through the linked list where the first element of one list is
compared with the first element of the second list; if a match is not found, the second
element of the first list is compared with the first element of the second list.
•This process continues until a match is found or it reaches the end of a list.
•The main aim of this algorithm is to prove that one linked list is a sub-list of another
list.
•This process continues until a match is found or it reaches the end of a list.
•The main aim of this algorithm is to prove that one linked list is a sub-list of another
list.
•Searching in this process is done linearly, checking each element of the linked list one
by one; if the output returns true, then it is proven that the second list is a sub-list of
the first linked list.
•The time complexity of the sublist search depends on the number of elements present
in both linked lists involved.
•The worst case time taken by the algorithm to be executed is O(m*n) where m is the
number of elements present in the first linked list and n is the number of elements
present in the second linked list.
 Emerging Technologies

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a broad field of computer science dedicated to creating
machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence.

Machine Learning
Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence (AI) that allows computers to learn
and improve from data without being explicitly programmed.
It uses algorithms to analyze large amounts of data, identify patterns, and make
predictions.
Types of Machine Learning
Machine learning can be broadly
categorized into three types:
• Supervised Learning:
Trains models on labeled data to
predict or classify new, unseen data.
• Unsupervised Learning:
Finds patterns or groups in unlabeled
data, like clustering or dimensionality reduction.
• Reinforcement Learning:
Learns through trial and error to maximize rewards, ideal for decision-making tasks.

Features of Machine Learning

• Machine Learning is the field of study that gives computers the capability to learn
without being explicitly programmed.
• It is similar to data mining, as both deals with substantial amounts of data.
• For large organizations, branding is crucial, and targeting a relatable customer base
becomes easier.
• Given a dataset, ML can detect various patterns in the data.
• Machines can learn from past data and automatically improve their performance.
• Machine learning is a data-driven technology. A large amount of data is generated
by organizations daily, enabling them to identify notable relationships and make
better decisions.
Deep Learning
Deep learning is a type of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks to help
computers learn and make decisions based on data.
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning, which is a subset of artificial intelligence
(AI).
An artificial neural network or ANN uses layers of interconnected nodes called
neurons that work together to process and learn from the input data.

Learning Applications:
Computer vision
The first Deep Learning application is Computer vision.
In computer vision, Deep learning AI models can enable machines to identify and
understand visual data.
Some of the main applications of deep learning in computer vision include:
• Object detection and recognition: Deep learning model can be used to identify and
locate objects within images and videos, making it possible for machines to perform
tasks such as self-driving cars, surveillance, and robotics.
• Image classification: Deep learning models can be used to classify images into
categories such as animals, plants, and buildings. This is used in applications such
as medical imaging, quality control, and image retrieval.
• Image segmentation: Deep learning models can be used for image segmentation into
different regions, making it possible to identify specific features within images.

Natural language processing (NLP):

In Deep learning applications, second application is NLP. NLP, the Deep learning
model can enable machines to understand and generate human language. Some of the
main applications of deep learning in NLP include:
• Automatic Text Generation – Deep learning model can learn the corpus of text and
new text like summaries, essays can be automatically generated using these trained
models.
• Language translation: Deep learning models can translate text from one language
to another, making it possible to communicate with people from different linguistic
backgrounds.
• Sentiment analysis: Deep learning models can analyze the sentiment of a piece of
text, making it possible to determine whether the text is positive, negative, or neutral.
This is used in applications such as customer service, social media monitoring, and
political analysis.
• Speech recognition: Deep learning models can recognize and transcribe spoken
words, making it possible to perform tasks such as speech-to-text conversion, voice
search, and voice-controlled devices.

Reinforcement learning:
In reinforcement learning, deep learning works as training agents to take action in an
environment to maximize a reward. Some of the main applications of deep learning in
reinforcement learning include:
• Game playing: Deep reinforcement learning models have been able to beat human
experts at games such as Chess
• Robotics: Deep reinforcement learning models can be used to train robots to
perform complex tasks such as grasping objects, navigation, and manipulation.
• Control systems: Deep reinforcement learning models can be used to control
complex systems such as power grids, traffic management, and supply chain
optimization.

Advantages of Deep Learning:

1. High accuracy: Deep Learning algorithms can achieve state-of-the-art
performance in various tasks, such as image recognition and natural language
processing.
2. Automated feature engineering: Deep Learning algorithms can automatically
discover and learn relevant features from data without the need for manual feature
engineering.
3. Scalability: Deep Learning models can scale to handle large and complex
datasets, and can learn from massive amounts of data.
4. Flexibility: Deep Learning models can be applied to a wide range of tasks and can
handle various types of data, such as images, text, and speech.
5. Continual improvement: Deep Learning models can continually improve their
performance as more data becomes available.

Natural language processing (NLP)

Natural language processing (NLP) is a field of computer science and a subfield of
artificial intelligence that aims to make computers understand human language.
NLP uses computational linguistics, which is the study of how language works, and
various models based on statistics, machine learning, and deep learning.
These technologies allow computers to analyze and process text or voice data, and to
grasp their full meaning, including the speaker’s or writer’s intentions and emotions.
Here are some of the key NLP techniques:
1. Text Processing and Preprocessing In NLP
• Tokenization: Dividing text into smaller units, such as words or sentences.
• Stemming and Lemmatization: Reducing words to their base or root forms.
• Stopword Removal: Removing common words (like “and”, “the”, “is”) that may not
carry significant meaning.
• Text Normalization: Standardizing text, including case normalization, removing
punctuation, and correcting spelling errors.
2. Syntax and Parsing In NLP
• Part-of-Speech (POS) Tagging: Assigning parts of speech to each word in a
sentence (e.g., noun, verb, adjective).
• Dependency Parsing: Analyzing the grammatical structure of a sentence to identify
relationships between words.
• Constituency Parsing: Breaking down a sentence into its constituent parts or
phrases (e.g., noun phrases, verb phrases).
3.Semantic Analysis
• Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifying and classifying entities in text, such as
names of people, organizations, locations, dates, etc.
• Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD): Determining which meaning of a word is used in
a given context.
• Coreference Resolution: Identifying when different words refer to the same entity in
a text (e.g., “he” refers to “John”).
4.Information Extraction
• Entity Extraction: Identifying specific entities and their relationships within the text.
• Relation Extraction: Identifying and categorizing the relationships between entities
in a text.
5. Text Classification in NLP
• Sentiment Analysis: Determining the sentiment or emotional tone expressed in a
text (e.g., positive, negative, neutral).
• Topic Modeling: Identifying topics or themes within a large collection of documents.
• Spam Detection: Classifying text as spam or not spam.
6. Language Generation
• Machine Translation: Translating text from one language to another.
• Text Summarization: Producing a concise summary of a larger text.
• Text Generation: Automatically generating coherent and contextually relevant text.
7. Speech Processing
• Speech Recognition: Converting spoken language into text.
• Text-to-Speech (TTS) Synthesis: Converting written text into spoken language.
8. Question Answering
• Retrieval-Based QA: Finding and returning the most relevant text passage in
response to a query.
• Generative QA: Generating an answer based on the information available in a text
corpus.
9. Dialogue Systems
• Chatbots and Virtual Assistants: Enabling systems to engage in conversations with
users, providing responses and performing tasks based on user input
10.Sentiment and Emotion Analysis in NLP
• Emotion Detection: Identifying and categorizing emotions expressed in text.
• Opinion Mining: Analyzing opinions or reviews to understand public sentiment
toward products, services, or topics.

Applications of Natural Language Processing (NLP)

• Spam Filters:
One of the most irritating things about email is spam.
Gmail uses natural language processing (NLP) to discern which emails are legitimate
and which are spam.
These spam filters look at the text in all the emails you receive and try to figure out
what it means to see if it’s spam or not.
• Algorithmic Trading:
Algorithmic trading is used for predicting stock market conditions.
Using NLP, this technology examines news headlines about companies and stocks and
attempts to comprehend their meaning in order to determine if you should buy, sell, or
hold certain stocks.
• Questions Answering:
NLP can be seen in action by using Google Search or Siri Services.
A major use of NLP is to make search engines understand the meaning of what we are
asking and generate natural language in return to give us the answers.
• Summarizing Information:
On the internet, there is a lot of information, and a lot of it comes in the form of long
documents or articles.
NLP is used to decipher the meaning of the data and then provides shorter
summaries of the data so that humans can comprehend it more quickly.
Internet of Things (IoT)
Connected Devices
• Connected devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) are physical objects that can
connect to other systems and devices over the internet.
• They can be controlled remotely and transmit and receive data.
• Consumer-connected devices include smart TVs, smart speakers such as Google
Home, toys, wearables and smart appliances.
• In a smart home, for example, IoT devices are designed to sense and respond to a
person's presence.
• When a person arrives home, their car communicates with the garage to open the
door.
• IoT devices have sensors and small computer processors that utilize machine
learning, which simulates human interactions by collecting data from different
environments.
• This data can learn someone’s behaviors and preferences and automate tasks.
• For example, a smart kettle is an IoT technology that can boil water at specific
times of the day, depending on the user’s schedule.
• Over time, users don’t need to program these devices because machine learning
can adapt to someone’s behavior without following instructions.
• Many IoT devices connect to smartphones, allowing you to control a device from
an app.
• For example, you can set up a smart speaker on your phone. Many smart speakers
also provide Bluetooth support, enabling you to stream music from your phone without
relying on a Wi-Fi network.
• IoT devices are vulnerable to security
threats because they can connect to
an unsecured network or device to
transmit data.
• IoT data and network protocols can
reduce or eliminate security concerns.
• These protocols include MQTT, AMQP,
LoRaWAN, Zigbee, HTTP, and XMPP.
• Protocols are communication modes that secure an IoT device when it collects and
shares data with other IoT devices.
Data Analytics
IoT analytics refers to collect, process and analyze data that are generated by IoT
devices.
As more devices are connected in the internet , it generate a large amount of data that
provides a valuable insights and provide valuable information from that particular data.
IoT can be the subset of Bigdata and it consists of heterogenous streams that
combined and transformed to correct information.
The Significance of Data Analytics in IoT
• Data analytics is a process of analyzing unstructured data to give meaningful
conclusions. Numerous of the methods and processes of data analytics are automated
and algorithms designed to process raw data for humans to understand.
• IoT devices give large volumes of precious data that are used for multiple
applications. The main goal is to use this data in a comprehensive and precise way so
that it's organized, and structured into a further usable format.
• A Data analytics uses methods to process large data sets of varying sizes and
characteristics, it provides meaningful patterns, and extracts useful outputs from raw
data.
• Manually analyzing these large data sets is veritably time consuming, resource
intensive, and expensive. Data analytics is used for saving time, energy, resources and
gives precious information in the form of statistics, patterns ,and trends.
• Organizations use this information to improve their decision making processes,
apply further effective strategies, and achieve desired outcomes.
Roles of Data Analysts in IoT
The roles of data analysts within organizations are contingent on their knowledge,
skills, and expertise. Here are seven prominent roles that data analysts fulfill.
1. Determining Organizational Goals:
A data analyst's most crucial part is helping a business define its primary
organizational objectives.
This original step is vital for setting a business apart, outperforming challengers, and
attracting the right audience.
Data analysts collaborate with staff and team members to monitor, track, gather, and
analyze data, necessitating access to all available data used within the organization.
2. Data Mining:
Data analysts gather and mine data from internet sources and company databases,
conducting analysis and research.
This research helps businesses understand market dynamics, current trends,
competitor activities, and consumer preferences.
3. Data Cleaning:
Data analysts play an essential part in data cleansing, a critical aspect of data
preparation.
Data cleansing involves correcting, identifying, and analyzing raw data, significantly
improving decision making by providing accurate and precise data.
4. Data Analysis:
Data analysts offer data entry services that include data analysis.
They employ ways to efficiently explore data, excerpt relevant information, and give
accurate answers to business-specific questions.
Data analysts bring statistical and logical tools to the table, enhancing a business's
competitive advantage.
5. Recognizing Patterns and Identifying Trends:
Data analysts excel in recognizing trends within industries and making sense of vast
datasets.
Their expertise in identifying industry trends enables businesses to enhance
performance, estimate strategy effectiveness, and more.
6. Reporting:
Data analysts convert essential insights from raw data into reports that drive
advancements in business operations.
Reporting is vital for monitoring online business performance and safeguarding
against data misuse. It serves as the primary means to measure overall business
performance.
7. Data and System Maintenance:
Data analysts also contribute to maintaining data systems and databases, ensuring
data coherence, availability, and storage align with organizational requirements.
Data analysts employ ways to enhance data gathering, structuring, and evaluation
across various datasets.
IoT analytics can do the following:
1. Data Processing and Integration: Handle large volumes of data generated by IoT
devices, integrating and processing different data types for meaningful insights.
2. Real-Time Decision-Making: Give nonstop monitoring of IoT data streams,
enabling immediate responses to changing conditions or events.
3. Predictive Analytics: Forecast trends and potential issues based on historical
data, facilitating visionary decision- making and preventative measures.
4. Functional Effectiveness: Optimize processes, resource allocation, and energy
usage by identifying patterns and inefficiencies in IoT- generated data.
5. Predictive conservation: Anticipate equipment failures or maintenance
requirements, reducing time-out and minimizing functional dislocations.
6. Cost Optimization: Identify areas for cost reduction and efficiency enhancement
by analyzing IoT data for resource utilization and process optimization.
7. Supply Chain Optimization: Improve supply chain visibility and effectiveness by
analyzing data from connected devices throughout the supply chain process.
8. Regulatory Compliance: Helps organizations in adhering to data privacy and
regulatory essentials by providing tools for secure data management and compliance
reporting.
Applications Of IoT
1.Smart Agriculture
2.Smart vehicles
3.Smart homes
4.Smart pollution control
5.Smart healthcare
6.Smart cities
Cybersecurity
Data Breaches
• A data breach is any security incident in which unauthorized parties access
sensitive or confidential information, including personal data (Social Security
numbers, bank account numbers, healthcare data) and corporate data (customer
records, intellectual property, financial information).
• A data breach, also known as data leakage, is "the unauthorized exposure,
disclosure, or loss of personal information".
• The first reported breach was in 2002 and the number occurring each year has
grown since then.
Hacking
• An effort to attack a computer system or a private network inside a computer is
known as hacking.
• Simply, it is unauthorized access to or control of computer network security
systems with the intention of committing a crime.
• Hacking is the process of finding some security holes in a computer system or
network in order to gain access to personal or corporate information.
• One example of computer hacking is the use of a password cracking technique to
gain access to a computer system.
• The process of gaining illegal access to a computer system, or a group of
computer systems, is known as hacking.
• This is accomplished by cracking the passwords and codes that grant access to
systems.
• The hacker is the individual who performs the hacking. Following are some of the
things that can be hacked:
➢Single systems
➢Email account
➢A group of systems
➢LAN network
➢A website
➢Social media sites, etc.
Types of Hackers:
The types of hackers are:
1. Black Hat Hackers:
• These types of hackers, often known as crackers and always have a malicious
motive and gain illegal access to computer networks and websites.
• Their goal is to make money by stealing secret organizational data, stealing funds
from online bank accounts, violating privacy rights to benefit criminal organizations,
and so on.
2. White Hat Hackers/Ethical Hackers:
• White hat hackers (sometimes referred to as ethical hackers) are the polar
opposites of black hat hackers.
• They employ their technical expertise to defend the planet against malicious
hackers.
• White hats are employed by businesses and government agencies as data security
analysts, researchers, security specialists, etc.
• White hat hackers, with the permission of the system owner and with good motives,
use the same hacking tactics that the black hackers use.
3. Gray Hat Hackers:
• They fall somewhere between the above-mentioned types of hackers, in that they
gain illegal access to a system but do so without any malicious intent.
• The goal is to expose the system’s weaknesses.
• Instead of exploiting vulnerabilities for unlawful gains, grey hat hackers may offer to
repair vulnerabilities they’ve identified through their own unauthorized actions.
4. Red Hat Hackers:
• Also known as eagle-eyed hackers.
• Red hat hackers want to stop threat actors from launching unethical assaults.
• The red hat hackers aim the same as ethical hackers, but their methods differ, the
red hat hackers may utilize illegal or extreme methods.
• Red hat hackers frequently use cyber attacks against threat actors’ systems.
5. Blue Hat Hackers:
• Safety experts that work outside of the organization are known as blue hat hackers.
• Before releasing new software, companies frequently encourage them to test it and
uncover security flaws.
• Companies occasionally hold meetings for blue hat hackers to help them uncover
flaws in their critical internet systems.
6. Green Hat Hackers:
• Green hat hackers aren’t familiar with safety measures or the internal dynamics
of the internet, but they’re quick learners who are driven (if not desperate) to
advance in the hacking world.
• Although it is unlikely that they want to damage others, they may do so while
“experimenting” with various viruses and attack strategies.
• As a result, green hat hackers can be dangerous since they are frequently
unaware of the implications of their activities – or, even worse, how to correct them.

Cyber attacks
• A cyber attack is an intentional attempt to access a computer system, network,
or device to steal, alter, or destroy data.
• A cyber attack is any intentional effort to steal, expose, alter, disable, or
destroy data, applications, or other assets through unauthorized access to a
network, computer system or digital device.
Common types of cyber attacks
a) Malware
Malware is a term used to describe malicious software, including spyware,
ransomware, viruses, and worms.
Malware breaches a network through a vulnerability, typically when a user clicks a
dangerous link or email attachment that then installs risky software.
Once inside the system, malware can do the following:
• Blocks access to key components of the network (ransomware)
• Installs malware or additional harmful software
• Covertly obtains information by transmitting data from the hard drive (spyware)
• Disrupts certain components and renders the system inoperable
b) Phishing
Phishing is the practice of sending fraudulent communications that appear to come
from a reputable source, usually through email.
The goal is to steal sensitive data like credit card and login information or to install
malware on the victim’s machine.
Phishing is an increasingly common cyberthreat.
c) Man-in-the-middle attack
Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, also known as eavesdropping attacks, occur when
attackers insert themselves into a two-party transaction.
Once the attackers interrupt the traffic, they can filter and steal data.
Two common points of entry for MitM attacks are:
1. On unsecure public Wi-Fi, attackers can insert themselves between a visitor’s device
and the network. Without knowing, the visitor passes all information through the
attacker.
2. Once malware has breached a device, an attacker can install software to process
all of the victim’s information.
d) Denial-of-service attack
A denial-of-service attack floods systems, servers, or networks with traffic to exhaust
resources and bandwidth.
As a result, the system is unable to fulfill legitimate requests.
Attackers can also use multiple compromised devices to launch this attack.
This is known as a distributed-denial-of-service (DDoS) attack.
e) SQL injection
A Structured Query Language (SQL) injection occurs when an attacker inserts
malicious code into a server that uses SQL and forces the server to reveal information
it normally would not.
An attacker could carry out a SQL injection simply by submitting malicious code into a
vulnerable website search box.
f) Zero-day exploit
A zero-day exploit hits after a network vulnerability is announced but before a patch or
solution is implemented.
Attackers target the disclosed vulnerability during this window of time.
Zero-day vulnerability threat detection requires constant awareness.
g) DNS Tunneling
• DNS tunneling utilizes the DNS protocol to communicate non-DNS traffic over port
53.
• It sends HTTP and other protocol traffic over DNS.
• There are various, legitimate reasons to utilize DNS tunneling.
• However, there are also malicious reasons to use DNS Tunneling VPN services.
• They can be used to disguise outbound traffic as DNS, concealing data that is
typically shared through an internet connection.
• For malicious use, DNS requests are manipulated to exfiltrate data from a
compromised system to the attacker’s infrastructure.
• It can also be used for command and control callbacks from the attacker’s
infrastructure to a compromised system.

Mitigation Strategies
Cyber risk mitigation is the application of policies, technologies and procedures to
reduce the likelihood and impact of a successful cyber attack.
It is a critical practice to help guide decision-making around risk control and mitigation
and allows your organization to stay protected and achieve its business goals.
Cybersecurity mitigation strategies are actions that can be taken to reduce the impact
of cyber attacks. These strategies include:
• Risk assessment: Evaluate your organization's level of risk and identify areas for
improvement
• Network access controls: Authenticate and authorize users who request access to
data or systems
• Incident response plan: Create a plan that describes how to respond to an attack to
minimize delays.
• Security patches and updates: Regularly update software, operating systems, and
applications to fix known vulnerabilities
• Network traffic monitoring: Continuously monitor network traffic to detect and
respond to cyber attacks
• Security awareness training: Educate employees about cybersecurity risks and how
to avoid them
• Multifactor authentication: Require users to provide at least two forms of ID
verification
• Firewall and threat detection software: Use software to detect and block threats
• Physical security: Review your organization's physical security measures
• Minimize attack surface: Reduce the number of ways that attackers can gain
access to your systems
Big Data
DataMining
• Data mining is the process of sorting through large data sets to identify patterns and
relationships that can help solve business problems through data analysis.
• Data mining techniques and tools help enterprises to predict future trends and make
more informed business decisions.
• Data mining is the process of extracting knowledge or insights from large amounts
of data using various statistical and computational techniques.
• The data can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, and can be stored in
various forms such as databases, data warehouses, and data lakes.
• The primary goal of data mining is to discover hidden patterns and relationships in
the data that can be used to make informed decisions or predictions.
• This involves exploring the data using various techniques such as clustering,
classification, regression analysis, association rule mining, and anomaly detection.
Data Mining Architecture
Data mining architecture refers to the overall design and structure of a data mining
system.
A data mining architecture typically includes several key components, which work
together to perform data mining tasks and extract useful insights and information from
data.
Some of the key components of a typical data mining architecture include:

• Data Sources: Data sources are the sources of data that are used in data mining.
These can include structured and unstructured data from databases, files, sensors,
and other sources. Data sources provide the raw data that is used in data mining and
can be processed, cleaned, and transformed to create a usable data set for analysis.

• Data Preprocessing: Data preprocessing is the process of preparing data for

analysis. This typically involves cleaning and transforming the data to remove errors,
inconsistencies, and irrelevant information, and to make it suitable for analysis. Data
preprocessing is an important step in data mining, as it ensures that the data is of high
quality and is ready for analysis.
• Data Mining Algorithms: Data mining algorithms are the algorithms and models that
are used to perform data mining. These algorithms can include supervised and
unsupervised learning algorithms, such as regression, classification, and clustering, as
well as more specialized algorithms for specific tasks, such as association rule mining
and anomaly detection. Data mining algorithms are applied to the data to extract useful
insights and information from it.

• Data Visualization: Data visualization is the process of presenting data and insights
in a clear and effective manner, typically using charts, graphs, and other
visualizations. Data visualization is an important part of data mining, as it allows data
miners to communicate their findings and insights to others in a way that is easy to
understand and interpret.
Types of Data Mining
There are many different types of data mining, but they can generally be grouped into
three broad categories: descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive.
• Descriptive data mining involves summarizing and describing the characteristics of
a data set. This type of data mining is often used to explore and understand the data,
identify patterns and trends, and summarize the data in a meaningful way.
• Descriptive data mining involves summarizing and describing the characteristics of
a data set. This type of data mining is often used to explore and understand the data,
identify patterns and trends, and summarize the data in a meaningful way.
• Prescriptive data mining involves using data and models to make recommendations
or suggestions about actions or decisions. This type of data mining is often used to
optimize processes, allocate resources, or make other decisions that can help
organizations achieve their goals.

Data Warehousing
• A Data Warehouse is separate from DBMS, it stores a huge amount of data, which
is typically collected from multiple heterogeneous sources like files, DBMS, etc.
• The goal is to produce statistical results that may help in decision-making.
• An ordinary Database can store MBs to GBs of data and that too for a specific
purpose.
• For storing data of TB size, the storage shifted to the Data Warehouse.
• Besides this, a transactional database doesn’t offer itself to analytics.
• To effectively perform analytics, an organization keeps a central Data Warehouse
to closely study its business by organizing, understanding, and using its historical data
for making strategic decisions and analyzing trends.
Benefits of Data Warehouse
• Better business analytics: Data warehouse plays an important role in every
business to store and analysis of all the past data and records of the company. which
can further increase the understanding or analysis of data for the company.
• Faster Queries: The data warehouse is designed to handle large queries that’s why it
runs queries faster than the database.
• Improved data Quality: In the data warehouse the data you gathered from different
sources is being stored and analyzed it does not interfere with or add data by itself so
your quality of data is maintained and if you get any issue regarding data quality then
the data warehouse team will solve this.
• Historical Insight: The warehouse stores all your historical data which contains
details about the business so that one can analyze it at any time and extract insights
from it.
Features of Data Warehousing
• Centralized Data Repository: Data warehousing provides a centralized repository
for all enterprise data from various sources, such as transactional databases,
operational systems, and external sources. This enables organizations to have a
comprehensive view of their data, which can help in making informed business
decisions.
• Data Integration: Data warehousing integrates data from different sources into a
single, unified view, which can help in eliminating data silos and reducing data
inconsistencies.
• Historical Data Storage: Data warehousing stores historical data, which enables
organizations to analyze data trends over time. This can help in identifying patterns
and anomalies in the data, which can be used to improve business performance.
• Query and Analysis: Data warehousing provides powerful query and analysis
capabilities that enable users to explore and analyze data in different ways. This can
help in identifying patterns and trends, and can also help in making informed business
decisions.
• Data Transformation: Data warehousing includes a process of data transformation,
which involves cleaning, filtering, and formatting data from various sources to make it
consistent and usable. This can help in improving data quality and reducing data
inconsistencies.
• Data Mining: Data warehousing provides data mining capabilities, which enable
organizations to discover hidden patterns and relationships in their data. This can help
in identifying new opportunities, predicting future trends, and mitigating risks.
• Data Security: Data warehousing provides robust data security features, such as
access controls, data encryption, and data backups, which ensure that the data is
secure and protected from unauthorized access.

Data Visualization
Big Data Visualization refers to the techniques and tools used to graphically represent
large and complex datasets in a way that is easy to understand and interpret·
Given the volume, variety, and velocity of big data, traditional visualization methods
often fall short, requiring more sophisticated approaches to make sense of such vast
amounts of information.
Big Data Visualization is characterized by its ability to handle:
• Volume: The sheer amount of data requires robust visualization tools that can
summarize and present data effectively without losing critical information.
• Variety: Data comes in various formats (structured, unstructured, semi-structured)
from diverse sources· Effective visualizations must accommodate this diversity.
• Velocity: Data streams in at high speeds, especially from sources like social media
and IoTdevices· Real-time visualization is often necessary to keep pace with the influx.
Importance of Big Data Visualization
1. Enhanced Decision-Making
Big data visualization provides a clear and immediate understanding of data, enabling
businesses and organizations to make informed decisions quickly.
2. Improved Data Comprehension
It aids in transforming raw numbers into meaningful insights, making it easier for
analysts and non-technical users to understand the underlying trends and
relationships.
3. Increased Engagement
Interactive visualizations can engage users more effectively than static reports.
Dashboards and real-time visual data representations allow users to interact with the
data, drilling down into specifics and exploring different scenarios, leading to deeper
insights and more meaningful engagement with the information.

Types of Visualizations for Big Data

Big Data Visualization leverages advanced graphical techniques and specialized tools
such as:
1. Heatmaps
The heat map is a visualization of data that is displayed on the map or table and uses
different specific features and variations of different colours to represent the data.
• Heat mapping is regarded as an essential tool that if used correctly can give us
relief from analyzing never-ending data. Value diversity on an individual basis often
looks like an anarchy.
• A heat map of values is much more friendly to view and analyze large and complex
amounts of figures at a glance.
• Useful for showing the density of data points or the magnitude of activities across
different regions or categories.

2. Network diagrams:
Network diagrams are particularly valuable for visualizing complex interconnections
between entities, making them essential in fields such as social network analysis,
internet infrastructure, and bioinformatics.
• These diagrams are composed of nodes
(representing entities) and edges
(representing relationships)·
• Ideal for visualizing relationships and
interactions in data, such as social
connections or data flows.

Geospatial Maps
Geospatial maps integrate geographical data with analytical data, providing a spatial
dimension to the visualization. This type of visualization is crucial for any data with a
geographic component, ranging from global economic trends to local event planning.
Integrating large-scale geographical data with traditional data sets to provide spatial
analysis.
Tree Maps
Tree maps display hierarchical data as a set of
nested rectangles, where each branch of the
tree is given a rectangle, which is then tiled with
smaller rectangles representing sub-branches.
This method is useful for visualizing
part-to-whole relationships within a dataset.

Stream Graphs
Stream graphs are a type of stacked area
graph that is ideal for representing changes
in data over time. They are often used to
display volume fluctuations in streams of
data and are particularly effective in
showing the presence of patterns and
trends across different categories.

Parallel Coordinates
Parallel Coordinates is used for plotting
individual data elements across multiple
dimensions. It is particularly useful for
visualizing and analyzing multivariate
data, allowing users to see correlations
and patterns across several
interconnected variables.
Chord Diagrams
Chord diagrams are used to show inter-relationships between data points in a circle.
The arcs connect data points, and their thickness or color can indicate the weight or
value of the relationship, useful for representing connectivity or flows within a system.
These diagrams help identify patterns, clusters, or trends within complex datasets,
aiding in decision-making and analysis.
Applications of Big Data
Visualization
1.Healthcare
2.Finance
3.Retail
4.Manufacturing
5.Marketing
6.Transport and logistics
 Information Technology Applications

1.E-commerce
•E-commerce, or electronic commerce, is the buying and selling of goods and services,
or the transfer of funds or data, over an electronic network, primarily the internet.
•E-commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds
transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing,
electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated
data collection systems.

Online Shopping
•Online shopping is the act of buying goods or services over the internet using a
computer, smartphone, or tablet.
•Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce, also known as "ecommerce".
Ecommerce businesses can be online-only or have a physical presence as well.
•Some advantages of online shopping include Safety, Convenience, Better prices,
Variety, Authenticity, No pressure shopping, and Time-saving.
•Online shopping is becoming more and more widespread and accepted due to these
many conveniences.

Online Business
•An online business is a business that
conducts its primary activities over the
internet, such as buying, selling,
or providing services online.
•Online businesses can be started by anyone and can be inexpensive to get off the
ground.
•Here are some examples of online businesses:
•E-commerce: A business that sells products or services online, or uses the internet to
generate sales leads. E-commerce businesses can be run from a single website or
through multiple online channels.
•Selling handmade goods: You can sell handmade products on sites like Etsy, Amazon,
and eBay.
•Selling art: You can sell your art as prints, canvases, framed posters, or digital
downloads. You can also use a print-on-demand service to have your artwork printed
on mugs, T-shirts, or other goods.
•Affiliate marketing: You can promote other businesses' products through affiliate
marketing.
•Software development: You can develop software solutions.

E-Learning
•E-learning, or online learning, is a way of learning that uses the internet and other
digital technologies to deliver instruction.
•It's an alternative to traditional classroom learning.
•E-learning courses can be accessed through electronic devices like computers,
tablets, and cell phones.
•E-learning courses can be live, pre-recorded, or a combination of both.
•E-learning courses can include videos, quizzes, games, and other interactive
elements.
•Learning management systems can help facilitate e-learning by storing courses,
assessments, and grades.
•Benefits of e-learning include:
•Flexibility: Students can learn at their own pace and from any location.
•Cost-effective: There's no need to spend money on travel, seminars, and hotel rooms.
•Wider coverage: E-learning can reach a large number of people in many different
locations.
•Personalized: E-learning can be tailored to the needs of individual learners.

Online Education
•Online education, also known as distance learning, e-learning, or remote learning, is
a way to learn and teach that uses the internet.
•Online education can be used in all sectors of education, from elementary schools to
higher education. It can be an effective alternative to traditional classroom education.
•It can include: Watching videos, Reading articles, Taking online courses, Interacting
with teachers and other students online, and Submitting work electronically.
•Online education can be flexible and allow students to study at their own pace. There
are several types of online learning, including:
Asynchronous
Students complete coursework and exams within a given time frame, and interaction
usually takes place through discussion boards, blogs, and wikis.
Synchronous
Students and the instructor interact online simultaneously through text, video, or audio
chat.
Distance Learning: Distance learning refers to the way of learning that does not
require you to be present physically at the university or institution.
•Learning materials and lectures are available online.
•Learners can stay at their homes while taking the course from an online university or
other institution.
•They will usually also have the opportunity to attend in-person workshops, residencies,
or other learning components, but the material is primarily taught through online
courses.

•E-governance, or electronic governance, is the use of information and communication

technologies (ICTs) to improve the efficiency and transparency of government
services.
•E-governance, meaning 'electronic governance' is using information and
communication technologies (ICTs) (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and
mobile computing) at various levels of the government and the public sector and
beyond, for the purpose of enhancing governance.
•E-governance uses ICTs like the internet, mobile computing, and wide area networks
•It improves the exchange of information and transactions between governments,
businesses, and citizens
•It can also improve internal government operations
•Benefits of e-governance include:
•E-governance can make government processes more efficient, transparent, and
accountable.
•It can help strengthen the connection between public officials and communities.
•It can lead to a more inclusive and accountable democracy.

Online Government Services

•Online government services, also known as e-government, are services that are
delivered to citizens and between government departments using information and
communication technologies (ICTs).
•The goal of e-government is to improve governance, efficiency,
and
transparency.
•Digital government services (also called e-government) are defined as service delivery
within government — as well as between government and the public — using
information and communication technologies.
•Benefits of online government services are Improved user experience for citizens,
Increased public participation, Improved internal efficiency and productivity, Reduced
labor costs, and More innovation.
•Examples of online government services include:
•DigiLocker: A secure cloud-based platform for storing and sharing documents like
Aadhaar cards, driving licenses, and PAN cards
•UMANG: A mobile app that provides access to government services like Aadhaar,
Digital Locker, PAN, and Employee Provident Fund services.
(Unified Mobile Application for New-age Government)
•PayGov: A service that allows citizens to make online payments to public and private
banks
•Mobile Seva: A service that provides government services through mobile phones and
tablets
•myGov.in: A national platform that allows citizens to share ideas and participate in
policy and governance matters

Digital India Initiatives

Digital India Initiatives refer to the Government of India's flagship program aimed at
transforming India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
Launched on 1st July 2015, the program emphasizes the use of technology to improve
governance, enhance connectivity, and foster inclusivity.
Below are key pillars and major initiatives under the program:

Key Pillars of Digital India

1.Broadband Highways:
Aim: Provide high-speed internet connectivity across the country, especially in rural
areas.
Initiatives: BharatNet, GramNet, and National Knowledge Network.
2.Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity:
Aim: Expand mobile network coverage to all rural and remote areas.
Progress: Network expansion to connect uncovered villages.
3.Public Internet Access Program:
Aim: Establish Common Service Centres (CSCs) and Post Offices as multi-service
digital access points.
Examples: CSC 2.0.
4.e-Governance – Reforming Government through Technology:
Aim: Use IT to simplify government processes.
5.e-Kranti – Electronic Delivery of Services:
Aim: Provide electronic delivery of various government services.
Examples: e-Hospital, National Scholarship Portal, and e-NAM for farmers.
6.Information for All:
Aim: Ensure transparency by providing access to information in a timely and reliable
manner.
Platforms: MyGov portal, SMS alerts.
7.Electronics Manufacturing:
Aim: Boost domestic manufacturing of electronics, reduce imports, and increase job
creation.
Initiatives: Modified Incentive Special Package Scheme (M-SIPS), Electronics
Development Fund.
8.IT for Jobs:
Aim: Provide training in IT skills to increase employability.
Programs: Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA).
9.Early Harvest Programs:
Aim: Implement initiatives with short timelines for quick benefits.
Examples: Wi-Fi in schools, biometric attendance in government offices.
Major Initiatives Under Digital India
1.Aadhaar:
A unique identification system for residents with biometric and demographic details.

2.BharatNet:
High-speed broadband connectivity to over 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats.

3.UMANG (Unified Mobile Application for New-Age Governance):

A unified platform for accessing various government services through a mobile app.

4.Digital Locker:
A secure cloud-based platform for storing and sharing government-issued documents.

5.BHIM (Bharat Interface for Money):

A UPI-based payment app promoting cashless transactions.

6.Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) Trinity:

Integration of financial inclusion, unique identification, and mobile connectivity for
direct benefit transfers.

7.Smart Cities Mission:

Incorporating ICT (Information and Communication Technology) to make cities
sustainable and efficient.

8.Make in India and Start-Up India:

Support for technology-driven startups and innovation.

9.GeM (Government e-Marketplace):

A platform for procurement of goods and services by government
organizations.

10. eCourts:
Digitization of judiciary for faster case resolutions.
Impact of Digital India
•Increased Connectivity: Internet penetration has improved significantly in rural areas.
•Digital Payments: Widespread adoption of digital payment methods like UPI and mobile
wallets.
•Transparency: Reduction in corruption due to direct benefit transfers and e-
governance.
•Job Creation: Enhanced opportunities in IT, electronics manufacturing, and e-
services.
•Inclusive Growth: Bridging the digital divide between urban and rural areas. The Digital
India Mission continues to evolve, empowering citizens with digital tools, enhancing
infrastructure, and fostering innovation across the country.