Introduction

Fundamentals of Surveying - Lecture

 Lecture Outline
I. Introduction
A. What is Surveying?
B. Professional Surveying
C. The Surveyor
D. Uses of Surveys
II. Division and Types of Surveys
III. Sources of Errors
IV. Errors and Mistakes in Surveying
V. References

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Introduction

DEFINITION OF SURVEYING

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 Surveying
Traditional Definition:

The art of making measurements of

the relative positions of natural and
man-made features on the earth’s
surface, and the presentation of this
information either graphically or
numerically. (NJDOT Survey Manual)

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Surveying
Modern Definition:

The art and science of determining

angular and linear measurements to
establish the form, extent, and relative
position of points, lines, and areas on or
near the surface of the earth or on other
extra-terrestrial bodies through applied
mathematics and the use of specialized
equipment and techniques. (La Putt)

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 Importance of Modern Surveying
• Map the earth above and below the sea level
• Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea
• Establish property boundaries of private and public lands
• Develop data banks of land use and natural resource information, which
aid in managing the environment
• Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields of the
earth
• Prepare charts of the moon, planets, and other celestial objects

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 Professional Surveying
Professional Surveying is the application of the knowledge of the:
• science of surveying measurement;
• legal principles of boundary location;
• laws related to boundaries and land use;
• applicable mathematical and computational theories and principles
• natural and other forces which affect positional accuracy;
• land planning and development concepts pertinent to subdivision of land and property
surveys
• land record and land tenure concepts; and
• geodetic and other earth-related sciences

All of these are for the analysis, design, and execution of surveying and mapping projects, and the
design of land mapping. (Buckner, 1994)

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 The Surveyor
A surveyor is a professional person with
the academic qualifications and technical
expertise to (International Federation of
Surveyors) :
• practice the science of measurement;
• assemble and asses land and geographic
related information;
• use that information for the purpose of
planning and implementing the efficient
administration of the land, the sea, and
structures thereon; and
• instigate the advancement and
development of such practices

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 Uses of Surveys
1. Establishment of boundaries of land
2. Fixing of national and state
boundaries
3. Charting of coastlines and navigable
streams and lakes
4. Precise location of definite
reference points throughout the
country
5. Collection of valuable facts
concerning the earth’s magnetism at
widely scattered stations
throughout the country
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Introduction

TYPES OF SURVEYS

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General Classification of Surveys

1. Plane Surveying: surveying in

which the mean surface of the
earth is considered a plane, or
in which its spheroidal shape is
neglected (Davis et. al., 1981)

2. Geodetic Surveying: takes into

account the true shape of the
earth (Davis et. al., 1981)

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 Types of Surveying
1. Control Survey: consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical
positions of arbitrary points
2. Property Survey: performed to determine the length and direction of lot
lines and to establish the position of these lines on the ground
3. Topographic Survey: made to secure data from which may be made a
topographic map indicating the configuration of the terrain and the
location of natural and human-made objects.
4. Hydrographic Survey: refers to surveying of bodies of water for the
purposes of navigation, water supply, or subaqueous construction
5. Mine Survey: utilizes principles for land, geologic, and topographic
surveying to control, locate, and map underground and surface works
related to mining operations
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 Types of Surveying
6. Route Survey: refers to those control, topographic, and construction
surveys necessary for the location and construction of lines of
transportation or communication, such as highways, railroads, canals,
transmission lines, and pipelines
7. Construction Survey: performed to lay out, locate, and monitor public
and private engineering works
8. Photogrammetric Survey: utilizes the principles of aerial and terrestrial
photogrammetry in which measurements made on photographs are used
to determine the positions of photographed objects.
9. Forestry Survey: used for forest management, protection, production,
and conservation

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 Types of Surveying
10. As-Built Survey: documents the precise final locations and lay-outs of
engineering works, and records any design change that may have been
incorporated in construction works
11. Solar Survey: mapping property boundaries, solar easements, position
obstructions and collectors according to sun angles, and meet other
requirements of zoning boards and title insurance companies
12. Industrial Survey: makes extremely accurate measurements for
manufacturing processes where small tolerances are required

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Introduction

ERRORS AND MISTAKES

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 Error & Correction

Error: refers to the difference

between a given measurement
and the “true” or “exact” value
of the measured quantity

Correction: refers to the

negative of the error

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Measurement & Error

It can be stated unconditionally that:

1. No measurement is exact.
2. Every measurement contains
errors.
3. The true value of a measurement is
never known.
4. The exact sizes of the errors
present are always unknown.

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 Sources of Errors
1. Natural Errors: caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as
changes in magnetic declination, temperature, refraction, atmospheric
pressure, etc.
2. Instrumental Errors: due to imperfections in the instruments used, either
from faults in construction or improper adjustments (e.g., divisions not
uniformly spaced)
3. Personal Errors: arise due to limitations of the human senses (e.g., ability
to read a micrometer or to center a level bubble); magnitude is affected
by the personal ability to see and by manual dexterity

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 Types of Errors: Mistakes or Blunders

• Not actually errors because they

are usually so gross in magnitude
compared to the other types of
errors
• One of the most common reasons
is simple carelessness on the part
of the observer
• An observation with a mistake is
not useful unless the mistake is
removed

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 Types of Errors: Mistakes or Blunders
Common Mistakes
• Reading the wrong graduation on the tape
• Omitting a whole length of tape
• Transposition of figures
• Reading a scale backward
• Misplacing a decimal point
• Incorrect recording of field notes
• Sighting the wrong target

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Types of Errors: Systematic Error

So called systemic because these occur

according to some deterministic system
which, when known, can be expressed
by some functional relationship; also
called a cumulative error

Types of Systematic Errors

1. Constant Error
2. Counteracting

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 Types of Errors: Random Error

This variation results from

observational errors which
have no known functional
relationship based upon a
deterministic system. They
exhibit random behavior
and must be treated
accordingly.

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Introduction

GEOMATICS

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 Geomatics

The name has gained widespread acceptance in the United States, as well as in other
English-speaking countries of the world.

In the United States, the Surveying Engineering Division of The American Society of
Civil Engineers changed its name to the Geomatics Division.

Many college and university programs in the United States that were formerly
identified as “Surveying” or “Surveying Engineering” are now called “Geomatics” or
“Geomatics Engineering.”
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 Geomatics
The principal reason cited for making the name change is that the manner and scope
of practice in surveying have changed dramatically in recent years.

This has occurred in part because of recent technological developments that have
provided surveyors with new tools for measuring and/or collecting information, for
computing, and for displaying and disseminating information.

It has also been driven by increasing concerns about the environment locally,
regionally, and globally, which have greatly exacerbated efforts in monitoring,
managing, and regulating the use of our land, water, air, and other natural resources.

These circumstances, and others, have brought about a vast increase in demands for
new spatially related information.

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 Surveying Safety
Surveyors (geomatics engineers) generally are involved in both field and office work.
The fieldwork consists in making observations with various types of instruments to
either
(a) determine the relative locations of points or
(b) to set out stakes in accordance with planned locations to guide building and
construction operations.

The office work involves

(1) conducting research and analysis in preparing for surveys,
(2) computing and processing the data obtained from field measurements, and
(3) preparing maps, plats, charts, reports, and other documents according to client
specifications. Sometimes the fieldwork must be performed in hostile or
dangerous environments, and thus it is very important to be aware of the need to
practice safety precautions.

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Introduction

FIELD NOTES

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 Field Notebook
• The field notebook should be made
of quality paper and protected with
stiff board or leather cover.
• Observations should be recorded
directly in the field notebook at the
time of observation.
• Scratch papers are avoided in order
to train students in taking notes
under actual field or job conditions.

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 Field Notebook
Requirements of Handwritten Information Found in the Field Notes
Field Notes

• Accuracy • Title of the Fieldwork

• Integrity • Date and Time of Day
• Legibility • Weather Conditions
• Arrangement • Surveying Party and Designations
• Clarity • Equipment Used

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Field Notebook
Data Presentation in Field Notes

• Sketches
• Tabulated Forms
• Computations
• Explanatory Notes

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 Guides in Note-Keeping
• Follow consistent, simple, clear, and plain style of lettering.
• Use sharp pencils or pens using waterproof ink in writing as much as
possible.
• Letter the notebook owner’s name and address on the cover and first
inside page using permanent ink.
• Begin a new day’s work on a new page.
• Always write directly on the field notebook.
• Do not erase recorded data.
• When a whole page is to be deleted, draw diagonal lines from opposite
corners and write the word “VOID”.

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 Guides in Note-Keeping
• Show the word “COPY” at the top of copied pages.
• Avoid crowding observed data in the field notebook.
• Use straight edges in ruling lines and protractors for laying-off angles.
• Sketches are to be drawn in general proportions instead of exactly to
scale.
• Indicate the position of the north in all sketches.
• Tabulated values are to be kept inside the column rulings with digits and
decimal points vertically aligned.
• Notes should not be made to appear either more precise or less precise
than what they really are.

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 Guides in Note-Keeping
• Do not superimpose one number over another or on lines of sketches.
• Computations should be presented in the field notebook.
• Number every page of the field notebook for easier referencing.
• A camera can also be a helpful note-keeping instrument in field
documentations.
• Tape recorders are also sometimes used, and also admissible.
• Sign surname and initials in the lower right-hand corner of the right page
on all original notes.

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 Surveying Party
• Chief of Party
• Assistant Chief of Party
• Instrument Man
• Tapeman/ Chainman
• Rodman
• Pacer
• Recorder
• Computer
• Aidman/ Medic
• Utility Men

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 Basic Instruments

Theodolite

• for measuring both horizontal and

vertical angles
• consists of a telescope mounted
movably within two perpendicular
axes
• can be used in meteorology and
rocket launch technology

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Basic Instruments

Transit

• made and introduced in 1831 and

was based on the theodolite
• can be revolved 360 degrees
about its horizontal axis
• speeds up alignment work and
permits averaging out of sighting
and instrumental errors

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 Basic Instruments

Total Station System

• consists of a short-to-medium
range EDM instrument
• can measure both horizontal and
vertical angles up to the nearest
second
• distances can be measured to the
nearest millimeter

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 Classification of Rods

Self-Reading Rods Target Rods

• held vertically where leveler • leveler signals the rodman to

observes graduation at which slid the target up or down until
the line of sight intersects the it is bisected by the line of sight
rod • target is usually equipped with a
• satisfactory for self-reading Vernier or other devices for
when the length of sight is less fractional measurements
than 120 to 150 meters

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 Care and Handling of Instruments
• When handling the instrument, make sure to hold it properly.
• Whenever the instrument is being carried or handled, the clamp-screws
should be clamped very lightly so as to allow the parts to move if the
instrument is stuck.
• Before setting the instrument over the tripod, make sure it is stable and
sturdy that it would not cause the tripod to tilt and set the instrument to
fall off.
• When the tripod is set and the instrument is placed over, see to it that the
instrument is well-fastened to the tripod head.
• Protect the instrument from impact and vibration.

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 Care and Handling of Instruments
• Never leave the instrument while it is set-up in any place where possible
accidents may occur.
• In tightening screws, bring them only to a firm bearing.
• Always use the sunshade whenever possible.
• Never wipe the coated lenses of a telescope with your fingers or a rough
cloth.
• Do not touch the level vials or breath on them while in use.

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Introduction

CONTROL SURVEYING

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 Control Surveying
• determination of the precise
position of a number of stations
distributed over an area to serve
as origin or for checking of other
subsequent surveys to be used in
engineering projects
• control systems have become
practicable through the use of
artificial satellites and has a
purpose to prevent accumulation
of errors by connecting detail
work to a consistent geometrical
system of points

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 Control Surveys
Geodetic Control Surveys Project Control Surveys

• determine the accurate • determine the positions of control

geographic positions of points points between stations of
on the Earth’s surface taking geodetic accuracy over an area of
into account its curvature limited extent such as isolated
• determination of position of tracts of lands, group settlements,
points through satellite survey barangay areas, and municipalities
or photogrammetric aerial
triangulation

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 Control Surveys
Horizontal Control Vertical Control

• provided by two or more points • provided by benchmarks in or

on the ground and precisely
fixed in position horizontally by near the track to be surveyed
distance and direction which becomes the foundation for
• triangulation and trilateration correctly portraying relief on
were the most economical topographic maps
procedures available for • usually established by running
establishing basic control for lines of differential levels starting
mapping projects extending from and closing on established
over large areas benchmarks

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 Processes of Control Surveys
Doing Reconnaissance
• carried out to establish the most suitable positions for survey stations
which should be intervisible and should lie close to the topographic detail
to be surveyed
Laying the Stations
• selection of appropriate markers for the control stations. Control markers
should be easily identifiable, aesthetically sound, and able to last the
projected length of the survey project
Distance Measurement
• involves carrying out the actual measurement of horizontal and vertical
distances

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Control Station
• small mark set immovably into the
ground such that the instrument or
optical target can be set up above it
• demands establishment of points
with known horizontal and vertical
measurements
• control points in the survey must be
consistent with all other points in
the geodetic control and not just
within that particular survey

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 Reference Datum
Philippine Horizontal Datum Philippine Vertical Datum

• known as the Luzon Datum • established by continuous

• with a known azimuth and observations of the fluctuations of
distance of 38 km away from tides during a certain period of
Balanacan (Marinduque), the time (19 years)
geographic coordinate of • mean sea level is not a tidal datum
Baltazar is calculated and only refers to the average
height of the seas for all stages of
tide and is only used for leveling

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 References
• Ghilani & Wolf, Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Ed.
• La Putt, J.P. (2007). Elementary Surveying. Philippines.
• Dimal, M. L. (2006). Putting Theory Into Practice. University of the Philippines
Diliman

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