Industrial Instrumentation

Pressure Sensors
“In any given plant, the number of
pressure gauges used is probably
larger than all other instruments
put together”
Practical Considerations in Pressure Measurements

➢In industrial applications, good repeatability often is more

important then absolute accuracy.

➢If process pressures vary over a wide range, transducers with good
linearity and low hysteresis are the preferred choice.

➢Ambient and process temperature variations also cause errors in

pressure measurements, particularly in detecting low pressures and
small differential pressures. In such applications, temperature
compensators must be used
Practical Considerations in Pressure Measurements

Selection Criteria

➢Pressure transducers usually generate output signals in the millivolt range (spans of
100 mV to 250 mV). When used in transmitters, these are often amplified to the
voltage level (1 to 5 V) and converted to current loops, usually 4-20 mA dc. The
transducer housing should be selected to meet both the electrical area classification
and the corrosion requirements of the particular installation.

➢If the installation is in an area where explosive vapors may be present, the
transducer or transmitter and its power supply must be suitable for these
environments. This is usually achieved either by placing them inside purged or
explosion proof housings, or by using intrinsically safe designs.

➢The single most important decision in selecting a pressure transducer is the

range
➢When high process temperatures are present, one can consider the use of various
methods of isolating the pressure instrument from the process. These include loop
seals, siphons, chemical seals with capillary tubing for remote mounting, and
purging.
Practical Considerations in Pressure Measurements

Maintenance
Without exception, pressure sensors require scheduled, periodic
maintenance and/or recalibration.
Practical Considerations in Pressure Measurements

Calibration

Pressure transducers can be recalibrated

1. on-line or
2. in a calibration laboratory.

Laboratory recalibration typically is preferred, but often is not possible or

necessary.

In the laboratory, there usually are two types of calibration devices:

1. deadweight testers that provide primary, base-line standards, and

2. laboratory or field standard calibration devices
Level Sensors
Level Measurement

Level is another common process variable that is

measured in many industries. The method used will
vary widely depending on the nature of the industry,
the process, and the application.

Inventory:
-- a constant supply or storage of material
Control:
-- continuous, batch, blending, and mixing control
-- stabilize flow to the next process
Alarming:
-- hi/lo limits, safety shut down
Data Logging:
-- material quantities for inventory and billing
purposes and where regulatory requirements are
necessary
What is measured?

The measured medium can be liquid, gas or solid

and stored in vessels (open/closed tanks),
silos, bins and hoppers.

Units of level can be expressed in:

 feet (meters)
 gallons (liters)
 pounds (kilograms)
 cubic volume (ft3, m3)
Methods ---- Direct or Indirect (inferential)

 Hydrostatic Head
 Float
 Load Cells
 Magnetic Level
Gauge
 Capacitance
Transmitters
 Magnetostrictive
 Ultrasonic
 Microwave
 Laser
 Radar
 Guided Wave
Radar
 Dip Stick
 Vibration
Direct Methods

Direct methods sense the surface or

interface of the liquid and is not
affected by changes in material density
(Specific Gravity)

Examples:
 Dip Stick
 Resistance Tapes
 Sight Glass
 Floats
 Ultrasonic
Indirect Methods (Inferential)

Indirect methods “infer” liquid level by measuring

some other physical parameter such as pressure,
weight, or temperature.
Changing materials means a corrective factor must
be used or recalibrating the instrument.

Examples:
 Hydrostatic head methods
 Load Cells
 Capacitance
 Conductivity
Selection Criteria

When determining the type of level sensor that

should be used for a given application, there are
a series of questions that must be answered:

 Open tank or closed tank?

 Can the level sensor be inserted into the tank or
should it be completely external? Contact or non-
contact?
 Continuous measurement or point measurement?
 Direct or Indirect measurement?
 What type of material is being measured? Liquid
or Solid? Clean or Slurry?
Selection Criteria

For all liquids you will need:

 The system operating temperature with max. and

min. excursions?
two wide range – expensive the sensor

 The system operating pressure?

 Check that system ‘T’ and ‘P’ do not conflict with

the materials of construction?
Selection Criteria

For Solids:

 Bulk density
Be careful with very large silos as compaction
at the bottom can greatly change assume bulk
densities

 Flow characteristics?

 Expected particle size distribution?

 Is solid abrasive and/or corrosive and what is the

moisture/solvent content?
For Liquids

Dip Stick

 Simple and cheap

 Can be used with any wet
material and not affected
by density.
 Can not be used with
pressurized tanks
 Visual indication only
(electronic versions are
available)

RodGauge - similar to a dipstick found in a car, it has weighted

line markings to indicate depth or volume
For Liquids

Sight Glass
Another simple
direct method
of measuring
liquids.
Can be used in
pressurized
tanks (as long
as the glass or
plastic tube can
handle the
pressure)
Good for applications where non-contact measurement is needed (like beverages)
For Liquids

Floats
Float rides the surface level to provide the
measurement. Many different styles are
available. Usually used for pump control,
high/low level alarms and emergency shut-off

Liquid density does not affect measurement

For Liquids

Conductivity Level Measurement

Point Level Measurement Continuous Level Measurement

Advantages and disadvantages

Low Cost
Conductive, non-coating liquids only
Insulating coatings can cause problems
For Liquids

Resistance Tape
The pressure of the fluid in the tank causes the
tape to short-circuit, thus changing the total
resistance of the measuring tape. An electronic
circuit measures the resistance; it's directly
related to the liquid level in the tank.
For Liquids

Bubblers Instrument input

does not matter

Bubblers allow the P

indicator to be Regulated purge

located system
(air or nitrogen)
anywhere.
The air pressure in
the tube varies
with the head
pressure of the Bottom of tube
determines reference
height of the point

liquid.
Can’t be used in closed tanks or where purging a liquid is not allowed (soap). Very
popular in the paper industry because the air purge keeps the tube from plugging .
For Liquids

Bubblers Instrument input

does not matter

Advantages: P

Regulated purge
-- Easy installation system
(air or nitrogen)

-- Continuous reading
providing analogue or
digital signal

-- No moving parts
Bottom of tube
determines reference
-- Good accuracy and point
repeatability
For Liquids

Bubblers Instrument input

does not matter

Limitations: P

Regulated purge
-- Not suitable for system
pressurized tanks (air or nitrogen)

-- Sediments may block

tube or probe

Bottom of tube
determines reference
-- Tanks must be freely point
vented
Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors

 These methods infer level by measuring

the hydrostatic head produced by the
liquid column.

 A pressure sensing element is installed

at the bottom of the tank and pressure
is converted to level.

 Different liquid densities or closed tank

applications must be accounted for.
Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors

General Theory for Head Measurement

The Pressure exerted by

Liquid Density (D)
the Height of the liquid
Height (H)
is:
P = H x Density*
Pressure PSI

If the Density of the

liquid is known then
H= Pressure
Density*
*Note: For liquids other than water, use the density of water 0.0361 lb/in3 as a reference and
multiply by the SG of the liquid.
Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks
indicates 30 feet of liquid in both tanks. Calculate the
pressure that each gauge will read if tank 1 contains
water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Oil
Water
Density (D) Density (D)
Height
Height
(H)
(H)

Tank 1 Tank 2
PSI
PSI

P = ? psi P = ? psi
Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of liquid in both tanks.
Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if tank 1 contains water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2
contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Oil
Water
Density (D) Density (D)
Height
Height
(H)
(H)

Tank 1 Tank 2
PSI
PSI

P = ? psi
P = H x Density
= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in 3
= (30 x 12) x 0.0361
= 13 psi
Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of liquid in both tanks.
Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if tank 1 contains water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2
contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Oil
Water
Density (D) Density (D)
Height
Height
(H)
(H)

Tank 1 Tank 2
PSI
PSI

P = H x Density x SG P = H x Density x SG
= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3 x 1 = 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in 3 x 0.85
= (30 x 12) x 0.0361 = (30 x 12) x 0.0361 x 0.85
= 13 psi = 11 psi
Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors (Cont‘d)

Practical Considerations when using head type instruments

The reference point of the tank vs
instrument input must be considered.

Liquid Density Liquid Density

(D) (D)
Height Height
(H) (H)
Pressure
PSI

Pressure PSI

This may not be practical in some applications where the tank elevation
is below grade or where a remote visual reading is required.
Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors (Cont‘d)

Tank Elevations

Vertical rises and drops contribute to the

overall height and therefore head pressure.
Horizontal runs have no effect.

Water
Density (D)
Height
(H)

P
Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors (Cont‘d)

Closed Tank Applications

P (atmospheric)

Open tanks are vented to

atmosphere so the pressure at
the bottom of the tank is only
due to the head pressure of the
liquid.
P Head =hxD

Closed tanks are not vented to

atmosphere so the pressure at
P
the bottom of the tank is due to
vapour

the head pressure of the liquid +

the vapour pressure above the
surface.
P Head = (h x D) + P vapour
Magnetic Level Sensor

Used where the sight

glass level gauge can
not be used.
Magneto-resistive types
can provide an
electrical output.

Liquid/liquid interface (such as water and oil) can be measured by

changing the buoyancy of the magnetic float
Displacers

 Not the same as a float.

 The displacer is immersed in the tank and the
buoyant force of the liquid produces a torque
which is proportional the amount of liquid level.

The output force

can be
converted to
provide a
proportional
pneumatic or
electrical
continuous
output of tank
level.
Displacers

Displacer – side mounted unit

The displacer float size and
diameter is selected
according to the size of
tank and the height of the
level to be measured.
The output force can be
converted to provide a
proportional pneumatic or
electrical continuous
output of level.

Advantages and
disadvantages:
 Very little movement of
displacer float
 Affected by different liquid
densities
 Limited to smaller tanks
sizes
UltraSonic Level Measurement

 Non-Contact direct level

sensor
 Level is a function of the
time it takes an ultrasonic
pulse to hit the surface and
return
 Time of flight: time taken
by waves to travel from
transducer to receiving
back the echo is called time
of flight.

Radar Level Sensors (Microwave)

Similar to ultrasonic but at a much higher frequency (6.3 GHz)

Various designs
-- Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave
-- Pulsed Wave
-- Guided Wave

These sensors have better performance in applications where vapour, dust or uneven
surfaces exist.
Load Cells

Tank level is determined by the

weight of the quantity of
material
Load Cells (strain gauge
transducers) placed at the
bottom of the tank measure
the weight and then convert it
to an electrical signal.
Capacitance Level Detection (RF Level Probes)

RF Capacitance level sensors are similar in operation to

conductivity sensors and are typically used when non-
conductive liquids are measured.

The only variable is the dielectric of the tank material that varies in proportion to the level.
Conductive liquids like mineral water will short out the probe to the tank wall.
Good for solids
Can be used for non-liquids
RF capacitance
probes are used
in a wide range
of applications
and are
subjected to
certain
limitations such
as:
 Electrode
Coating
 Low sensitivity
 Temperature
 Different
materials
 Shielding &
noise
Summary

• Level is measured by locating the

boundary between two media, called
the interface
• Level can be measured directly or
indirectly
• Noninvasive devices are preferred
when the material is corrosive,
hazardous, sterile, or at a high
temperature or pressure
Creative Assignment! HAZOP?????

Batch application using point level measurement

 Detect if the level
is at a
predetermined
point
 Generally used to
detect either a
low-level
condition or high-
level condition
 The output of a
point level sensor
is on-off, or 1 or
0 state digital
A batch process does NOT use a continuous level measurement device. signal
 Discussion & Questions?

Dr. Shahid Naveed 14. November 2024 / Dr. –Ing Naveed Ramzan
43