MEN-STM-421

S. EZRA
Strength of Material
• What is strength of materials
• Strength of materials deals with the prediction
of the performance of a given materials of a
structure under prescribed loads and/or other
external effects, such as support movements
and temperature changes
Strength of materials
• Discuss what you think could be some examples
of loads to be considered in a mining set-up
 Types of loads in a mining set up
• There are a number of different ways in which load can be
applied to a member. Typical loading types are:
• (a) Static or dead loads, i.e. non-fluctuating loads, generally
caused by gravity effects.
• (b) Live loads, as produced by, for example, lorries and moving
equipment.
• (c) Impact or shock loads caused by sudden blows, during
loading .
• (d) Fatigue, fluctuating or alternating loads, the magnitude
and sign of the load changing with time. ,earthquake, machine
vibrations
Performance indicators
• These loads induce
• Stress
• Strain
• Deflections
• Tortion
• If no considerations for these is made during the
design stage , materials and structures can fail causing
economic damages and loss of lives
 Direct Stress and strain
• External force applied
to a body in
equilibrium is reacted
by internal forces set
up within the material
Direct Stress and strain
 Direct Stress and strain
• While materials are elastic, • This constant is given the
stress is proportional to symbol E and termed the
strain. modulus of elasticity or
• This is Hooke’s law, in its Young’s modulus
simplest form,
mathematically states that
 Shear stress and strain
• There is then a tendency for
one layer of the material to
slide over another to produce
the form of failure
Shear stress and strain

• The angle of deformation y is then termed the shear strain.

• Shear strain is measured in radians and hence is non-
dimensional, i.e. it has no units
Shear stress and strain
• For materials within the elastic range the shear strain is
proportional to the shear stress producing it

• The constant G is termed the modulus of rigidity or shear

modulus and is directly comparable to the modulus of
elasticity used in the direct stress application
 Poisson’s ratio
• Under the action of this load the bar will
increase in length by an amount δL giving
a longitudinal strain in the bar of

• The bar will also exhibit, however, a

reduction in dimensions laterally, i.e. its
breadth and depth will both reduce.
•
Poisson’s ratio
 Problem
• Determine the stress in each
section of the bar shown below
when subjected to an axial tensile
load of 20kN.
• The central section is 30mm
square cross-section; the other
portions are of circular section;
their diameters being indicated.
• What will be the total extension
of the bar? For the bar material E
= 210GN/m2
Problem
Problem
• Now the extension of a bar can always be written in terms of the
stress in the bar since
•
Problem
• (a) A 25 mm diameter bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of
100kN. Under the action of this load a 200mm gauge length is found
to extend 0.19 x 10-3 mm. Determine the modulus of elasticity for the
bar material.
• (b) If, in order to reduce weight whilst keeping the external diameter
constant, the bar is bored axially to produce a cylinder of uniform
thickness, what is the maximum diameter of bore possible given that
the maximum allowable stress is 240MN/m2? The load can be
assumed to remain constant at 100kN.
• (c) What will be the change in the outside diameter of the bar under
the limiting stress quoted in (b)? (E = 210GN/m2 and v = 0.3)
Problem
A 25 mm diameter drilled rock is subjected to an axial tensile load of
100kN. Under the action of this load a 200mm gauge length is found
to extend 0.19 x 10-3 mm. Determine the modulus of elasticity for the
bar material
• (b)
c
 Tensile strength
• It is necessary to carry out some • Measurements of the
standard form of test to change in length of a
establish their relative selected gauge length of
properties. the bar are recorded
• One such test is the standard throughout the loading
tensile test in which a circular operation by means of
bar of uniform cross-section is extensometers
subjected to a gradually • Graphs of load against
increasing tensile load until extension or stress against
failure occurs. strain is produced
Tensile strength • For the first part of the test it will be
observed that Hooke’slaw is obeyed
• Some point A is eventually reached, however,
when the linear nature of the graph ceases
and this point is termed the limit of
proportionality
• For a short period beyond this point the
material may still be elastic (i.e. strain returns
to zero)but Hooke’slaw does not apply.
• The limiting point B for this condition is
termed the elastic limit
Tensile strength • For most practical purposes it can often
be assumed that points A and B are
coincident.
• Beyond the elastic limit plastic
deformation occurs and strains are not
totally recoverable.
• There will thus be some permanent
deformation or permanent set when load
is removed.
 • After the points C, termed the upper
Tensile strength yield point, and D, the lower yield
point
relatively rapid increases in strain
occur without correspondingly high
increases in load or stress.
• The graph thus becomes much more
shallow and covers a much greater
portion of the strain axis than does
the elastic range of the material.
• The capacity of a material to allow
these large plastic deformations is a
measure of the so-called ductility
 Tensile strength
• materials, for example, high carbon
steels and non-ferrous metals, it is
not possible to detect any difference
between the upper and lower yield
points and in some cases no yield
point exists at all.
• In such cases a proof stress is used
to indicate the onset of plastic strain
or as a comparison of the relative
properties with another similar
material
 Tensile strength
• A brittle material is one
which exhibits relatively
small extensions to fracture
so that the partially plastic
region of the tensile test
graph is much reduced
How do you relate strength
and hardness ?
 Work on the following

• The following figures were

obtained in a standard
tensile test on a specimen of
low carbon steel:
• diameter of specimen,
11.28mm; gauge length,
56mm;
• minimum diameter after
fracture, 6.45 mm.
• Using the above information
and the table of results
below,
•
Work on the following
• Plot a graph and use it and other information supplied to
determine the values of
• (a) Young's modulus of elasticity;
• (b) the ultimate tensile stress;
• (c) the stress at the upper and lower yield points;
• (d) the percentage reduction of area;
• (e) the percentage elongation;
• (f) the nominal and actual stress at fracture
 Toughness
• It is defined as the ability of a
material to withstand cracks
• To prevent the transfer or
propagation of cracks across its
section hence causing failure.
• Two distinct types of toughness
mechanism This has the action of blunting the
• The first type of mechanism sharp tip of the crack and hence
relates particularly to ductile reduces its stress concentration
materials
• A region of local tensile stress
always exists at the front of a
propagating crack
• This tensile stress opens up the
interface
• It blunts the crack by effectively
increasing the radius at the crack
tip, thereby reducing the stress-
concentration effect
 Fatigue and creep
• Fatigue is the failure of a
material under fluctuating
stresses each of which is
believed to produce minute
amounts of plastic strain.
• Fatigue is particularly
important in components
subjected to repeated and
often rapid load fluctuations
 Fatigue and creep
• Fatigue behaviour of
materials is usually
described by a fatigue life
or S-N curve
• The number of stress cycles
N to produce failure with a
stress peak of S is plotted
against S
 Fatigue and creep
• The particularly relevant feature
of this curve is the limiting
stress Sn
• It is assumed that stresses
below this value will not
produce fatigue failure no
matter many cycles are applied
(infinite life).
• There is an aim to keep all
stresses below this limiting level
Fatigue and creep
• some materials do not show
a defined limit
• modern design procedures
therefore justify the
situation by aiming at a
prescribed, long, but finite
life,
• Accept that service stresses
will occasionally exceed the
value of Sn
Fatigue and creep
• the number of occasions on
which the stress exceeds Sn
and by how much, will have
an important bearing on the
prescribed life.
• Full-scale, testing is required
before sufficient statistics
are available to allow
realistic life assessment.
Fatigue and creep
• What are some of the structures materials and systems in
geology, mining and metallurgy that can fail due to fatigue ?
 Fatigue and creep
• Creep is the gradual increase of
plastic strain in a material with
time at constant load.
• Particularly at elevated
temperatures some materials
are susceptible to this
phenomenon and even under
the constant load strains can
increase continually until
fracture.
Fatigue and creep
• In each case the curve can be considered
to exhibit four principal features.
(a) An initial strain, due to the initial
application of load. In most cases this
would be an
(b) A primary creep region, during which
the creep rate (slope of the graph)
diminishes.
(c) A secondary creep region, when the What is a best region for creep-
creep rate is sensibly constant. susceptible Materials ?

(d) A tertiary creep region, during which

the creep rate accelerates to final fracture
• What are some of the structures materials and systems in geology,
mining and metallurgy that can fail due to creep ?