Waves Class 11 Notes

Physics Chapter 15
• Waves
Wave is a form of disturbance which travels
through a material medium due to the repeated f
periodic motion of the particles of the medium
about their mean positions without any actual
transportation of matter.
• Characteristics of wave
The characteristics of waves are as follows:
(i) The particles of the medium traversed by a
wave execute relatively small vibrations about
their mean positions but the particles are not
permanently displaced in the direction of
propagation of the wave.
(ii) Each successive particle of the medium
executes a motion quite similar to its
predecessors along/perpendicular to the line of
travel of the wave.
(iii) During wave motion only transfer of energy
takes place but not that of a portion of the
medium.
Waves are mainly of three types: (a) mechanical or
elastic waves, (b) electromagnetic waves and (c)
matter waves.
• Mechanical waves
Mechanical waves can be produced or propagated
only in a material medium. These waves are
governed by Newton’s laws of motion. For
example, waves on water surface, waves on
strings, sound waves etc.
• Electromagnetic Waves
These are the waves which require no material
medium for their production and propagation, i.e.,
they can pass through vacuum and any other
material medium. Common examples of
electromagnetic
waves are visible light; ultra-violet light;
radiowaves, microwaves etc.
• Matter waves
These waves are associated with moving particles
of matter, like electrons, protons, neutrons etc.
Mechanical waves are of two types:
(i) Transverse wave motion, (ii) Longitudinal wave
motion,
• Transverse wave motion
In transverse waves the particles of the medium
vibrate at right angles to the direction in which the
wave propagates. Waves on strings, surface water
waves and electromagnetic waves are transverse
waves. In electromagnetic waves (which include
light waves) the disturbance that travels is not a
result of vibrations of particles but it is the
oscillation of electric and magnetic Velds which
takes place at right angles to the direction in which
the wave travels.
• Longitudinal wave motion
In these types of waves, particles of the medium
vibrate to and fro about their mean position along
the direction of propagation of energy. These are
also called pressure waves. Sound waves are
longitudinal mechanical waves.
• Wavelength
The distance travelled by the disturbance during
the time of one vibration by a medium particle is
called the wavelength (λ). In case of a transverse
wave the wavelength may also be deVned as the
distance between two successive crests or
troughs. In case of a longitudinal wave, the
wavelength (λ) is equal to distance from centre of
one compression (or refraction) to another.
• Wave Velocity
Wave velocity is the time rate of propagation of
wave motion in the given medium. It is different
from particle velocity. Wave velocity depends upon
the nature of medium.
Wave velocity (υ) = frequency (v) x wavelength (λ)
• Amplitude
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum
displacement of the particles of the medium from
their mean position.
• Frequency
The number of vibrations made by a particle in
one second is called Frequency. It is represented
by v. Its unit is hertz (Hz) v =1/T
• Time Period
The time taken by a particle to complete one
vibration is called time period.
T = 1/v, it is expressed in seconds.
• The velocity of transverse waves in a stretched
string is given by

where T is the tension in the string and μ is the

mass per unit length of the string, μ is also called
linear mass density of the string. SI unit of μ is kg
m-1.
• The velocity of the longitudinal wave in an elastic
medium is given by

where E is the modulus of elasticity of the medium

and ρ is the density of the medium. In case of
solids, E is Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y), then

• Newton’s Formula for the velocity of

sound in Air
According to Newton, when sound waves travel in
air or in a gaseous media, the change is taking
place isothermally and hence, it is found that

Speed of sound in air at STP conditions, calculated

on the basis of Newton’s formula is 280 ms-1.
However, the experimentally determined values is
332 ms-1.
According to Laplace, during propagation of sound
waves, the change takes place under adiabatic
conditions because gases are thermal insulators
and compressions and refractions are alternately
taking place with a high frequency.

• Factors InEuencing Velocity of Sound

The velocity of sound in any gaseous medium is
affected by a large number of factors like density,
pressure, temperature, humidity, wind velocity etc.
(i) The velocity of sound in a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of density of the
gas.
(ii) The velocity of sound is independent of the
change in pressure of the gas, provided
temperature remains constant.
(iii) The velocity of sound in a gas is directly
proportional to the square root of its absolute
temperature.
(iv) The velocity of sound in moist air is greater
than the velocity of sound in dry air.
(v) If wind _ows at an angle θ to the direction of
propagation of sound, the velocity of sound is v +
w cos θ, where w is the velocity of wind.
• General Equation of Progressive Waves
“A progressive wave is one which travels in a given
direction with constant amplitude, i.e., without
attenuation.”
As in wave motion, the displacement is a function
of space as well as time, hence displacement
relation is expressed as a combined function of
position and time as:
y (x,t) = A sin (kx — ωt + Ф)
We may also choose a cosine function instead of
sine function. Here A, K, ω and Ф are four constant
for a given wave and are known as amplitude,
angular wave number, angular frequency and
initial phase angle of given wave.
• Relation between phase and path
difference

• A wave motion can be re_ected from a rigid as

well as from a free boundary. A travelling wave, at
a rigid boundary or a closed end, is re_ected with a
phase reversal but the re_ection at an open
boundary takes place without any phase change.
• The Principle of Superposition of Wave
When any number of waves meet simultaneously
at a point in a medium, the net displacement at a
given time is the algebraic sum of the
displacements due to each wave at that time.

• Standing waves or Stationary waves

When two sets of progressive wave trains of the
same type (i.e., both longitudinal or both
transverse) having the same amplitude and time
period/frequency/ wavelength travelling with same
speed along the same straight line in opposite
directions superimpose, a new set of waves are
formed. These are called stationary waves or
standing waves.

• Progressive Waves
1. The disturbance progresses on wards; it being
handed over from particle to particle. Each particle
executes the same type of vibration as the
preceding one, though at a different time.
2. The waves are in the form of crests and
troughs, i.e., sine/cosine functions, which move on
wards with a deVnite velocity.
3. Every particle has the same amplitude; which it
attains in its own time depending upon the
progress of the wave.
4. The phase of every particle varies continuously
from 0 to 2π .
5. No particle remains permanently at rest. Twice
during each vibration, the particles are
momentarily at rest. Different particles attain this
position at different times.
6. All the particles have the same maximum
velocity which they attain one after another, as the
wave advances.
7. There is a regular _ow of energy across every
plane along the direction of propagation of the
wave. The average energy in a wave is half
potential and half kinetic.

• Stationary Waves
1. The disturbance is stationary, there being no
forward or backward movement of the wave. Each
particle has its own vibration characteristics.
2. The waves have the appearance of a
sine/cosine function, which shrink to a straight
line, twice in each vibration. It never advances.
3. Every particle has a Vxed allotted amplitude.
Some have zero amplitude (nodes) aiJ some have
maximum amplitude (antinodes) always. Each
partic1eattains this at the same given moment.
4. All the particles in one-half of the waves have a
Vxed phase and all the particles in the other half of
the wave have the same phase in the opposite
direction simultaneously.
5. There are particles -which are permanently at
rest (nodes) and all other particles have their own
allotted maximum displacement, which they attain
simultaneously. These particles are momentarily
at rest twice in each vibration, all at the same time.
6. All the particles attain their individual allotted
velocities depending upon their positions,
simultaneously. Two particles (nodes) in one wave
form have zero velocities all the time.
7. There is no _ow of energy at all, across any
plane. Each particle has its own allotted individual
energy. They all attain their values of RE. at one
time and all energy becomes KB. at another given
time.

• When a stationary wave is set up in a string of

length l Vxed at its two ends, in the simplest mode
of vibration, nodes are formed at the Vxed ends
and an antinode is formed at the middle point. The
frequency of fundamental mode of vibration (or
Vrst harmonic) is given by

• Frequency of the Stretched String

In general, if the string vibrates in P loops, the
frequency of the string under that mode is given
by

Based on this relation three laws of transverse

vibrations of stretched strings arise. They are law
of length, law of tension and law of mass.
• Law of Length
The fundamental frequency v is inversely
proportional to,the length L of the stretched string.

• Law of Tension
The fundamental frequency is directly proportional
to the square root of the tension in the string.

• Law of Mass
The fundamental frequency is inversely
proportional to the square root of mass per unit
length of the given string when L and T are kept
constants.

• Beats
The phenomenon of regular rise and fall in the
intensity of sound, when two waves of nearly
equal frequencies travelling along the same line
and in the same direction superimpose each other
is called beats.
One rise and one fall in the intensity of sound
constitutes one beat and the number of beats per
second is called beat frequency. It is given as:
vb = (v1-v2)
where v1 and v2 are the frequencies of the two
interfering waves; v1 being greater than v2.
• Doppler Effect
According to Doppler’s effect, whenever there is a
relative motion between a source of sound and
listener, the apparent frequencies of sound heard
by the listener is different from the actual
frequency of sound emitted by the source.
For sound the observed frequency v’ is given by

Here v = true frequency of wave emitted by the

source, v = speed of sound through the medium,
v0 the velocity of observer relative to the medium
and vs the velocity of source relative to the
medium. In using this formula, velocities in the
direction OS (i.e., from observer towards the
source) are treated as positive and those opposite
to it are taken as negative.
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