Let's break down these sampling concepts and calculations.

1. Comparing Sampling Methods

a. Random Sample vs. Stratified Random Sample
●​ Random Sample: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Imagine drawing names from a hat.
●​ Stratified Random Sample: The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on
shared characteristics (e.g., age, income, grade level). Then, a random sample is drawn
from each stratum. This ensures representation from all subgroups.
○​ Mathematical Calculation (Example): Suppose a population of 100 students has
60 girls and 40 boys. A simple random sample of 20 could, by chance,
overrepresent one gender. A stratified random sample would ensure proportional
representation. If we want 20 samples, we can have 12 girls (60/100 * 20) and 8
boys (40/100 * 20).
○​ Mathematical Experiment (Example): Simulate drawing random samples and
stratified random samples from a population with known proportions (e.g., using a
random number generator). Observe how stratified sampling consistently provides
more representative results.
b. Stratified Random Sample vs. Proportional Stratified Sample
●​ Stratified Random Sample: As described above, it involves dividing the population into
strata and randomly sampling from each.
●​ Proportional Stratified Sample: A type of stratified sampling where the sample size from
each stratum is proportional to the stratum's size in the population. This is the most
common and generally preferred approach.
○​ Mathematical Calculation (Example): In the student example above, the
proportional stratified sample (12 girls, 8 boys) is the proportional stratified sample.
The proportions in the sample match the proportions in the population.
○​ Mathematical Experiment (Example): Compare the results of stratified sampling
with non-proportional allocation to strata. You'll find that proportional allocation
minimizes sampling error and provides better estimates of population parameters.
c. Cluster Sample vs. Stratified Sample
●​ Cluster Sample: The population is divided into clusters (usually geographically). A
random sample of clusters is selected, and all members within the chosen clusters are
included in the sample.
●​ Stratified Sample: As described above, it involves dividing the population into strata and
randomly sampling from each stratum.
○​ Mathematical Calculation (Example): Suppose you want to sample students from
10 schools (clusters). In cluster sampling, you might randomly select 2 schools and
survey all students in those schools. In stratified sampling, you would sample
students from each of the 10 schools.
○​ Mathematical Experiment (Example): Simulate data where students within a
cluster are more similar to each other than students in different clusters. Compare
the precision of estimates obtained from cluster sampling vs. stratified sampling.
Stratified sampling will generally be more precise because it accounts for the
variability between clusters.
d. Probability Sampling vs. Non-Probability Sampling
●​ Probability Sampling: Every member of the population has a known and non-zero
chance of being selected. This allows for statistical inferences about the population.
Examples include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.
 ●​ Non-Probability Sampling: The probability of selection for each member is unknown.
These methods are often used for exploratory research but limit the ability to generalize
findings to the larger population. Examples include convenience sampling, snowball
sampling, and quota sampling.
○​ Mathematical Calculation (Example): Probability sampling allows you to calculate
confidence intervals and margins of error. Non-probability sampling does not.
○​ Mathematical Experiment (Example): Compare the characteristics of samples
obtained through probability sampling vs. non-probability sampling. You'll find that
probability samples are more likely to be representative of the population.
2. Drawing a Random Sample of 1000 Students
1.​ Define the Population: Clearly identify all students in the high school (e.g., by student ID
number, class list).
2.​ Obtain a Sampling Frame: Create a list of all students in the population.
3.​ Assign a Unique Number: Assign a unique number to each student in the sampling
frame.
4.​ Use a Random Number Generator: Use a random number generator (online tool,
calculator, or random number table) to generate 1000 random numbers.
5.​ Select the Students: Select the students whose assigned numbers correspond to the
generated random numbers.
3. Drawing a Stratified Sample of 1000 Students
1.​ Define Strata: Divide the student population into relevant strata (e.g., grade level, gender,
academic track).
2.​ Determine Stratum Sizes: Determine the number of students in each stratum.
3.​ Calculate Sample Size per Stratum: Calculate the proportional sample size for each
stratum. For example, if 25% of the students are in grade 10, then the sample from grade
10 should be 25% of the total sample size (1000 * 0.25 = 250).
4.​ Draw Random Samples from Each Stratum: Use the random sampling method (as
described in step 2 above) to draw the calculated number of samples from each stratum.
Repeat steps 2-5 for each stratum.
4. Stratified Sample with Margin of Error
Here's how to calculate the sample size for each stratum, considering the margin of error, and
construct the table:
1.​ Overall Sample Size: While a 3.7% margin of error is mentioned, we need a confidence
level (e.g., 95%) to calculate the overall sample size. Let's assume a 95% confidence
level. There are online calculators and formulas for sample size calculation, or you can
use a simplified approach for large populations. For this example, let's assume the
calculated overall sample size is 1000 (just for demonstration). In a real scenario, you
would calculate this based on the desired margin of error and confidence level.
2.​ Calculate Sample Size per Stratum:
○​ Lower Income: (5000 / 20000) * 1000 = 250
○​ Middle Income: (12000 / 20000) * 1000 = 600
○​ High Income: (3000 / 20000) * 1000 = 150
3.​ Table:
Income Level Population Size Sample Size
Lower Income 5000 250
Middle Income 12000 600
High Income 3000 150
Income Level Population Size Sample Size
Total 20000 1000
5. Instructional Effectiveness Study
1.​ Appropriate Sampling Method: Stratified sampling is appropriate because you want to
ensure representation from each Forestry School (stratum).
2.​ Sample Size: You'll need to determine the desired confidence level and margin of error to
calculate the appropriate sample size. Let's assume you want a 95% confidence level and
a 5% margin of error. Using a sample size calculator (or formula), and assuming a
population standard deviation, you may arrive at a sample size of, say, 100 teachers.
3.​ Drawing Samples:
○​ Calculate Sample Size per School: Determine the proportion of teachers in each
school relative to the total number of teachers. Multiply this proportion by the overall
sample size (100 in our example). For example:
■​ School A: (44 / 350) * 100 ≈ 13
■​ School B: (28 / 350) * 100 ≈ 8
■​ ...and so on for each school. (350 is the total number of teachers across all
schools)
○​ Draw Random Samples from Each School: Use a random number generator or
similar method to select the calculated number of teachers from each school. For
example, randomly select 13 teachers from School A, 8 teachers from School B,
and so on.
Remember: The sample size calculation depends on the desired confidence level and margin of
error. You should use a sample size calculator or formula to determine the appropriate sample
size for your specific needs. The calculations provided here are illustrative examples.