CHAPTER 1: The Study of Human social construction - a concept or practice that

Development is an invention of a particular culture or society.

The concept of childhood is a social construction,
. the form it takes varies across cultures.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: AN EVER-EVOLVING INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

FIELD
individual differences - differences in
Human development - Study of the systematic characteristics, influences, and developmental
processes of change and stability in people. outcomes.

Developmental scientists - individuals HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND

engaged in the professional study of human MATURATION
development. Heredity - inborn traits or characteristics.
Environment - the world outside the self.
STUDYING THE LIFE SPAN Maturation - Unfolding of a natural sequence of
Growth and development are more obvious in physical and behavioral changes.
infancy and child development. Now researchers
consider life-span development to be from “womb CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
to tomb,” comprising the entire human life span
from conception to death. Nuclear family – one/two parents and their
- positive development (e.g., becoming children.
toilet trained or enrolling in a college
course after retirement) Extended family - Multigenerational kinship
- negative development (e.g., once again network of parents, children, and other relatives.
wetting the bed after a traumatic event or socioeconomic status (SES) - Combination of
isolating yourself after retirement). economic and social factors describing an
individual or family, including income, education,
life-span development - Concept of human and occupation.
development as a lifelong process, which can be
studied scientifically. risk factors - conditions that increases negative
outcome.
Goals of development
Culture - Society’s way of life, including customs,
- Describe, explain, predict, intervene
traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical
products—all learned behavior, passed on from
THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:
parents to children.
BASIC CONCEPTS
ethnic group - A group united by ancestry, race,
Developmentalists - study processes of change religion, language, or national origins, which
and stability in all domains, or aspects, of contribute to a sense of shared identity.
development throughout all periods of the life
span. ethnic gloss - Overgeneralization about an
ethnic or cultural group that obscures differences
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT within the group.

NORMATIVE AND NONNORMATIVE

physical development - Growth of body and INFLUENCES
brain, including patterns of change in sensory
capacities, motor skills, and health. Normative Characteristic - event that occurs in
a similar way for most people in a group.
cognitive development - Pattern of change in Normative age-graded influences -
mental abilities, such as learning, attention, similar for people in a particular age group
memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and Normative history-graded influences -
creativity. significant events that shape a historical
generation: people who experience the
psychosocial development - Pattern of change event at a formative time in their lives.
in emotions, personality, and social relationships. age cohort - group of people born at
about the same time.
PERIODS OF LIFE SPAN
A historical generation may contain more than
one cohort, but cohorts are part of a historical
generation only if they experience major, shaping
historical events at a formative point in their
lives.

Nonnormative influences - unusual events that

have a major impact on individual lives because
they disturb the expected sequence of the life
cycle.
people sometimes help create their own BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES
nonnormative life events and thus participate
actively in their own development. theory - Coherent set of logically related
TIMING OF INFLUENCES: CRITICAL OR concepts that seek to organize, explain, and
SENSITIVE PERIODS predict data. Organizes and explains data and
generate hypotheses that can be tested by
Imprinting - Instinctive form of learning in research.
which, during a critical period in early
development, a young animal forms an hypotheses - Possible explanations for
attachment to the first moving object it sees. It’s phenomena, used to predict the outcome of
automatic and irreversible. research.

Imprinting - is the result of a predisposition

ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR
toward learning: the readiness of an organism’s
REACTIVE?
nervous system to acquire certain information
during a brief critical period in early life.
John Locke - a young child is a tabula rasa
Critical period - is a specific time when a given (blank slate) upon which society writes.
event, or its absence, has a specific impact on
Jean Jacques Rousseau - children are born
development. If a necessary event does not occur
“noble savages” who develop according to their
during a critical period of maturation, normal
own positive natural tendencies if not corrupted
development will not occur.
by society.
plasticity – range of modifiability of
Mechanistic Model - Model that views human
performance.
development as a series of predictable responses
sensitive periods - when a developing person is to stimuli. In this model, people are like
especially responsive to certain kinds of machines that react to environmental input, they
experiences. react automatically to physical forces or inputs.

Organismic Model (Rousseau) - human

THE LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH
development is internally initiated by an active
organism and as occurring in a sequence of
Development is lifelong - a lifelong process of
qualitatively different stages. This sees people as
change. Each period of the life span is affected by
active, growing organisms that set their own
what happened before and will affect what is to
development in motion. They initiate events.
come. Each period has unique characteristics and
Thus, the driving force for change is internal.
value. No period is more or less important.

Development is multidimensional - It occurs ISSUE 2: IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR

along multiple interacting dimensions—biological, DISCONTINUOUS?
psychological, and social—each of which may
develop at varying rates. Mechanist theorists - see development as
continuous: as occurring in small incremental
Development is multidirectional - As people stages. Development is always governed by the
gain in one area, they may lose in another, same processes and involves the gradual
sometimes at the same time. Children grow refinement and extension of early skills into later
mostly in one direction—up—both in size and in abilities, allowing one to make predictions about
abilities. Then the balance gradually shifts. future characteristics based on past performance.
Relative influences of biology and culture quantitative change - change in number or
shift over the lifespan. The process of amount, such as height, weight, or vocabulary
development is influenced by both biology and size. You are measuring fundamentally the same
culture. thing over time.
Development involves changing resource Organismic theorists see development as
allocations - Individuals choose to invest their discontinuous; as marked by the emergence of
resources of time, energy, talent, money, and new phenomena that could not be easily
social support in varying ways. predicted based on past functioning.
Development at different points in the life span is,
Development shows plasticity - Many abilities,
in this view, fundamentally different in nature.
such as memory, strength, and endurance, can
be improved significantly with training and THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
practice, even late in life.

Development is influenced by the historical

and cultural context - Each person develops
within multiple contexts—circumstances or
conditions defined in part by maturation and in
part by time and place.

CHAPTER 2: Theory and Research

.
 between the inborn urges of the id and the
requirements of civilized life
- Oedipus Complex - Boys develop sexual
attachment to their mothers,

Erik Erikson (1902–1994): Psychosocial

Development
- modified and extended Freudian theory by
emphasizing the influence of society on
the developing personality.
- Each stage involves what Erikson
originally called a crisis in personality: a
major psychosocial challenge that is
particularly important at that time and will
remain an issue to some degree
Psychoanalytic - unconscious emotions and throughout life.
drives.
PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING
Cognitive - analyzes thought processes.
learning perspective - View of human
Contextual - emphasizes the impact of the development that holds that changes in behavior
historical, social, and cultural context. result from experience or from adaptation to the
evolutionary/sociobiological - evolutionary environment.
and biological underpinnings of behavior. Learning - a long-lasting change in behavior
based on experience or adaptation to the
PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC environment.

Sigmund Freud Behaviorism - a mechanistic theory that

- The originator of psychoanalytic describes observed behavior as a predictable
perspective and believed in reactive response to experience. Behaviorists consider
development, and qualitative changes development as reactive and continuous.
over time. associative learning - mental link is
- Proposed that humans were born with a formed between two events.
series of innate, biologically based drives
such as hunger, sex, and aggression. Classical Conditioning
- Believed that early experiences shaped
later functioning. Drew attention to Ivan Pavlov - devised experiments in which
childhood as an important precursor to dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell
adult behavior. that rang at feeding time.

John B. Watson - applied such stimulus

Psychoanalytic perspective - view of human
response theories to children, claiming that he
development as shaped by unconscious forces
could mold any infant in any way he chose.
that motivate human behavior.
“Little Albert”

Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Development Operant conditioning - the individual learns

- believed that people are born with from the consequences of “operating” on the
biological drives that must be redirected environment. operant conditioning involves
to make it possible to live in society. voluntary behavior.
Behavior modification therapy - a form
three hypothetical parts of the personality: of operant conditioning used to eliminate
- ID - pleasure principle—the drive to seek undesirable behavior, such as temper
immediate satisfaction of their tantrums, or to instill desirable behavior,
needs/desires. such as putting away toys after play.
- EGO - represents reason, develops
gradually during the first year or so of life B. F. Skinner - formulated the principles of
and operates under the reality principle. operant conditioning, argued that an organism
The ego’s aim is to find realistic ways to will tend to repeat a response that has been
gratify the id that are acceptable to the reinforced by desirable consequences and will
superego. suppress a response that has been punished.
- SUPEREGO - the conscience and socially
approved “shoulds” and “should nots”. reinforcement - the process by which a
The superego is highly demanding; if its behavior is strengthened, increasing the
standards are not met, a child may feel likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
guilty and anxious Punishment - the process by which behavior is
weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition.
- The ego mediates between the impulses
of the id and the demands of the superego Albert Bandura: Social Learning (Social
- Freud proposed that personality forms Cognitive) Theory
through unconscious childhood conflicts - Bandura suggests that the impetus for
development is bidirectional.
 - has important implications for education
reciprocal determinism - the person acts on and for cognitive testing.
the world as the world acts on the person.
zone of proximal development (ZPD) - the
difference between what a child can do alone and
observational learning - Learning through
what the child can do with help.
watching the behavior of others.
PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE Scaffolding - the temporary support that
- Focuses on thought processes and parents, teachers, or others give a child in doing
behavior that reflects those processes. a task until the child can do it alone.
Encompasses both organismic and
mechanistically influenced theories. The Information-Processing Approach
- seeks to explain cognitive development by
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory analyzing the processes involved in
- forerunner of today’s “cognitive making sense of incoming information and
revolution” with its emphasis on mental performing tasks effectively: such
processes. processes as attention, memory, planning
- viewed development organismically, as strategies, decision making, and goal
the product of children’s efforts to setting.
understand and act on their world. - See people as active thinkers about their
- development was discontinuous, his world. View development as continuous
theory describes development occurring in and incremental.
stages. - Psychologists often use information-
- suggested cognitive development begins processing models to test, diagnose, and
with an inborn ability to adapt to the treat learning problems.
environment.
PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL
reciprocal determinism - bidirectional forces - development can be understood only in its
that affect development. social context. Sees the individual not as a
separate entity interacting with the
observational learning - Learning through environment, but as an inseparable part of
watching the behavior of others. it.
self-efficacy - Sense of one’s capability to Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory
master challenges and achieve goals. - A person is not merely an outcome of
development but is also a shaper of it.
Cognitive perspective - View that thought
- People affect their development through
processes are central to development.
biological and psychological
This cognitive growth occurs through three characteristics, talents, skills, disabilities,
interrelated processes: and temperament.

Organization - the creation of categories or

systems of knowledge

schemes - organized patterns of thought and

behavior used in particular situations

Adaptation - how children handle new

information in light of what they already know.
Adaptation occurs through two complementary
processes:
- assimilation - taking in new information
and incorporating it into existing cognitive
structures
- accommodation - adjusting one’s
cognitive structures to fit the new
information.
equilibration - the tendency to seek a stable
balance among cognitive elements; achieved
microsystem - the everyday environment of
through a balance between assimilation and
home, school, work, or neighborhood.
accommodation.
mesosystem - interlocking of various
Disequilibrium - uncomfortable motivational
microsystems. It may include linkages between
state, and it pushes children into accommodation.
home and school or between the family and the
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory peer group.
- focused on the social and cultural
Exosystem - interactions between a
processes that guide children’s cognitive
microsystem and an outside system or institution.
development.
- saw cognitive growth as a collaborative Macrosystem - consists of overarching cultural
process. People learn through social patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies,
interaction. They acquire cognitive skills and economic and political systems.
as part of their induction into a way of life.
chronosystem - adds the dimension of time:
change or constancy in the person and the
environment

PERSPECTIVE 5:
EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL
- By E. O. Wilson; focuses on evolutionary
and biological bases of behavior.
- draws on findings of anthropology,
ecology, genetics, ethology, and
evolutionary psychology to explain the
adaptive/survival, value of behavior for an
individual or species. Self-Reports: Diaries, Visual Techniques,
Interviews, and Questionnaires
According to Darwin, species have developed - The simplest form is a diary or log.
through the related processes of survival of the
fittest and natural selection. Individuals with Visual representation techniques - asking
heritable traits fitted (better adapted) to their participants to draw or paint or to provide maps
environments survive and reproduce more than or graphs that illuminate their experience—can
those that are less fitted (less well adapted). avoid reliance on verbal skills.

Evolved mechanisms - behaviors that face-to-face or telephone interview - researchers

developed to solve problems in adapting to an ask questions about attitudes, opinions, or
earlier environment. behavior.

Ethology - Study of the adaptive behaviors of structured interview - participant is asked the
animal species in natural contexts. The same set of questions.
assumption is that such behaviors evolved
open-ended interview - the interviewer can vary
through natural selection
the topics and order of questions and can ask
John Bowlby - drew upon his knowledge of follow-up questions based on the responses.
proximity-seeking behavior in animals of different
species as he formed his ideas about attachment Naturalistic and Laboratory Observation
in humans. Viewed infants’ attachment to a
Naturalistic observation - Real-life settings. No
caregiver as a mechanism that evolved to protect
Altering of behavior or the environment; they
them from predators.
simply record what they see.
Evolutionary psychology - Application of
laboratory observation - Controlled
Darwinian principles of natural selection and
environment. By observing all participants under
survival of the fittest to individual behavior.
the same conditions, investigators can more
According to this theory, people unconsciously clearly identify any differences in behavior not
strive to perpetuate their genetic legacy. They do attributable to the environment.
so by seeking to maximize their chances of
observer bias - the researcher’s tendency to
having offspring who will survive to reproduce
interpret data to fit expectations or to emphasize
and pass down their characteristics.
some aspects and minimize others.

RESEARCH METHODS
operational definition - definition stated solely
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH in terms of the operations used to measure a
phenomenon.
Quantitative research - objectively
measurable, numerical data and that is amenable cognitive neuroscience - study of links
to statistical analysis. Based on scientific between neural processes and cognitive abilities.
method, has traditionally characterized most
scientific inquiry. BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS

Qualitative research - focuses on the how and research design - a plan for conducting a
why of behavior. Involves nonnumerical scientific investigation
descriptions of participants’ subjective
understanding, feelings, or beliefs about their
experiences.

Sample - a smaller group within the population.

random selection - in which each person in a

population has an equal and independent chance
of being chosen. The result of random selection is
a random sample.

Case Studies - a study of an individual. Case

FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION studies cannot explain behavior with certainty or
make strong causal statements because there is sequential study - combines the two
no way to test their conclusions. approaches to minimize the drawbacks of the
separate approaches.
ethnographic study - seeks to describe the
pattern of relationships, customs, beliefs,
technology, arts, and traditions that make up a
society’s way of life.

Participant observation - a form of naturalistic

observation in which researchers live or
participate in the societies or smaller groups they
observe, as anthropologists often do for long
periods of time.

Correlational study
- determine whether a correlation, or ETHICS IN RESEARCH
statistical relationship, exists.
Guidelines of the American Psychological
- Correlations are expressed in terms of
Association (APA, 2002) cover such issues as
direction (+ or - ) and magnitude (degree).
informed consent (consent freely given with full
- reported as numbers ranging from −1.0
knowledge of what the research entails),
(perfect negative relationship) to +1.0
avoidance of deception, protection of participants
(perfect positive relationship). The closer a
from harm and loss of dignity, guarantees of
correlation comes to +1.0 or −1.0, the
privacy and confidentiality, the right to decline or
stronger the relationship.
withdraw from an experiment at any time, and
- A correlation of zero means that the
the responsibility of investigators to correct any
variables have no relationship.
undesirable effects, such as anxiety or shame.
Correlations enable us to predict one
variable in relation to another. In resolving ethical dilemmas, researchers should
be guided by three principles.
Experiment – controlled procedure in which the
experimenter manipulates variables to learn how Beneficence - the obligation to maximize
one affects another. potential benefits to participants and minimize
potential harm.
experimental group - Exposed to the
experimental manipulation or treatment. respect - for participants’ autonomy and
protection of those who are unable to exercise
control group - Do not receive the experimental
their own judgment.
treatment or may receive a different treatment.
Justice - the inclusion of diverse groups together
independent variable - experimenter has
with sensitivity to any special impact the research
control.
may have on them.
dependent variable - may or may not change
as a result of changes in the independent variable CHAPTER 3: Forming a New Life
random assignment - assigning the participants /
to groups in such a way that each person has an
equal chance of being placed in any group. Conceiving New Life
Development starts at conception, as sperm and
laboratory experiment - best for cause and egg meet, and an entirely new individual is
effect; it generally consists of asking participants created from parental genomes.
to visit a laboratory where they are subject to
conditions manipulated by the experimenter. Ovulation – rupture of mature follicle in either
ovary and expulsion of its ovum which occurs
field experiment - a controlled study conducted
every month until menopause
in an everyday setting (home or school).
Variables can still be manipulated, so causal
HOW FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE
claims can still be investigated.
fertile window - the time during which
natural experiment (quasi-experiment) -
conception is possible.
compares people who have been accidentally
“assigned” to separate groups by circumstances Fertilization/conception - the process by which
of life. It is a correlational study because sperm and ovum (gametes/sex cells) combine to
controlled manipulation of variables and random create a single cell called a zygote.
assignment to treatment groups are not possible.
Zygote - One-celled organism resulting from
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS fertilization.
cross-sectional study - illustrates similarities or
WHAT CAUSES MULTIPLE BIRTHS
differences among people of different ages.
dizygotic twins/fraternal twins - the result of
longitudinal study - tracks people over time
two separate eggs being fertilized by two
and focuses on individual change with age.
different sperm to form two unique individuals.
Monozygotic twins - result from the cleaving of Multifactorial transmission - illustrates the
one fertilized egg and are generally genetically action of nature and nurture influences and how
identical. they mutually and reciprocally affect outcomes.

Epigenesis: Environmental Influence on

MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY
Gene Expression
The science of genetics is the study of heredity:
Evidence suggests that gene expression itself is
the genetic transmission of heritable
controlled by a third component, a mechanism
characteristics from parents to offspring.
that regulates the functioning of genes within a
cell without affecting the structure of the cell’s
THE GENETIC CODE
DNA.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Chemical that Epigenesis/epigenetics - Genes are turned off
carries inherited instructions for the development or on as they are needed by the developing body
of all cellular forms of life. or when triggered by the environment.

Chromosomes - coils of DNA that consist of we can visualize this epigenetic framework as the
smaller segments called genes, software that tells the DNA when to work.

Genes - the functional units of heredity. Imprinting - the differential expression of certain
genetic traits, depending on whether the trait has
Genome - the complete sequence of genes in the
been inherited from the mother or the father.
human body.
GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL
Genetic code - Sequence of bases within the
ABNORMALITIES
DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins
The most prevalent defects are cleft lip or cleft
that determine the structure and functions of
palate, followed by Down syndrome.
living cells.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Meiosis - which the sex cells undergo when they Name Description Treatment
are developing, Down Extra copy of
Surgery, SPED
Syndrome chromosome 21
Mitosis - a process by which the non–sex cells
Extra X
divide in half over and over again, the DNA Klinefelter Hormone
Chromosome
replicates itself, so that each newly formed cell Syndrome Therapy
(XXY)
has the same DNA structure as all the others. Abnormality in X
Fragile X SPED, Speech
chromosome
Mutations - permanent alterations in genetic Syndrome Therapy
causes ID
material.
Missing X
Turner Hormone
Autosomes – not affiliated to sexual expression chromosome for
Syndrome Therapy
females
Sex Chromosomes – 23rd pair which indicates Extra Y
XXY Syndrome No treatment
the baby’s sex (XX, female: XY, male) chromosome
Gene-Linked Abnormalities
PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION Cystic Fibrosis Overproduction Physical
of mucus in the Therapy
Alleles - Genes that can produce alternative lungs and
expressions of a characteristic; alternate versions digestive tract
of the same gene. Diabetes Does not Insulin
produce enough
homozygous - two identical alleles for a trait insulin
Hemophilia Delayed blood Blood
heterozygous - differing alleles for a trait
clotting transfusions
Dominant inheritance - the dominant allele is Huntington’s CNS deteriorates
always expressed. Pattern of inheritance in which producing
problem in
a child receives identical recessive alleles,
muscles and
resulting in expression of a nondominant trait.
mental decline
recessive inheritance - the person must have Phenylketonuri Build up of Special Diet
two recessive alleles, for the trait to be a Phenylalanine in
the body
expressed. If a recessive trait is expressed, that
Sickle-Cell Limits body Penicillin,
person cannot have a dominant allele.
Anemia oxygen supply Antibiotics,
polygenic inheritance - interaction of several Pain Reliever
genes. Spina Bifida Incompletely Surgery
closed spinal
canal
Genotypes and Phenotypes: Multifactorial
Tay-Sachs Accumulation of Medication,
Transmission
Disease lipids in the NS Special Diet
phenotype - the observable characteristics Anencephaly Absence of brain No treatment
tissue
through which your genotype.
Polycystic Enlarged Kidney
genotype - Genetic makeup of a person, Kidney Disease Kidneys Transplant
containing both expressed and unexpressed Alpha Cirrhosis of the No treatment
characteristics. antitrypsin liver in early
 Deficiency infancy The likelihood of errors increases in offspring of
Alpha Severe Anemia; Frequent women age 35 or older.
Thalassemia nearly all die Blood
soon after birth Transfusion Down syndrome - the most common
Beta Severe Anemia; Blood chromosomal abnormality, accounts for about 40
Thalassemia fatal in Transfusions percent of all cases of moderate-to-severe mental
(Cooley’s adolescence or retardation.
Anemia) Young adulthood
Duchenne Males with No treatment GENETIC COUNSELING AND TESTING
Muscular muscle
Dystrophy weakness, minor Genetic counseling - Clinical service that
mental advises prospective parents of their probable risk
retardation of having children with hereditary defects.

genetic counselor – takes a family history and

Dominant or Recessive Inheritance of gives the prospective parents and any biological
Defects children physical examinations.
NATURE AND NURTURE: INFLUENCES OF
When one parent has one dominant abnormal
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
gene and one recessive normal gene and the
other parent has two recessive normal genes, STUDYING HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
each of their children has a 50-50 chance of
inheriting the abnormal gene. behavioral genetics - Study of relative
hereditary and environmental influences on
Recessive defects - expressed only if the child behavior.
is homozygous for that gene; A child must inherit
a copy of the recessive gene from each parent. Measuring Heritability

incomplete dominance - a trait is not fully Heritability - Statistical estimate of contribution

expressed. of heredity to individual differences in a specific
trait within a given population.

Concordant - tendency of twins to share the

same trait or disorder.

HOW HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT WORK

TOGETHER

Reaction range - Potential variability, depending

on environmental conditions, in the expression of
a hereditary trait.

Canalization - Limitation on variance of

expression of certain inherited characteristics.
The metaphor of canalization illustrates how
heredity restricts the range of development for
some traits.
sex-linked inheritance - certain recessive Genotype-environment interaction - the
disorders affect male and female children effects of similar environmental conditions on
differently. This is since males = XY and females genetically different individuals, and a discussion
= XX. of these interactions is a way to conceptualize
In humans, the Y chromosome is smaller and and talk about the different ways nature and
carries fewer genes than the X chromosome. nurture interact.
Males have only one X chromosome, so if they Genotype-environment correlation
inherit a "bad" gene on it, it will show, while (covariance) - Tendency of certain genetic and
females have two X chromosomes and a backup environmental influences to reinforce each other;
if one is "bad." may be passive, reactive ( evocative), or active.
Females who carry one "bad" gene are called  Passive correlations: occur when parents'
carriers. If a carrier woman has a son with an genes and the environment they provide
unaffected man, there's a 50% chance the son both support a child's traits. The child
will inherit the condition. Daughters have a 50% doesn't control this. Parents shape both
chance of being carriers. the child’s genes and early experiences.
Sex-linked recessive disorders (like color  Reactive, or evocative, correlations:
blindness, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy) Children with differing genetic makeups
are more common in males, as they only need evoke different reactions from others. This
one "bad" gene on their single X chromosome. type of correlation is called reactive
For a female to inherit one, both parents must because the other people react to the
contribute the faulty gene. child’s genetic makeup.
 Active correlations: As children get older
Chromosomal Abnormalities - typically occur and have more freedom to choose their
because of errors in cell division, resulting in an own activities and environments, they
extra or missing chromosome.
 actively select or create experiences During these three stages of gestation, the
consistent with their genetic tendencies. original single-celled zygote grows into an
o niche-picking - This tendency to embryo and then a fetus
seek out environments compatible
Cephalocaudal principle - “head to tail,”
with one’s genotype is called
development proceeds from the head to the
lower part of the trunk
nonshared environmental effects - The
unique environment in which each child grows Proximodistal principle - “near to far,”
up, consisting of distinctive influences or development proceeds from center of the body to
influences that affect one child differently than outer ones
another.
Early Signs and Symptoms of Pregnancy
Infertility – inability to conceive a child Tender, Swollen breasts or nipples
In Vitro Fertilization – eggs and sperm are Fatigue
combined in a laboratory dish Slight bleeding or cramping
Food Cravings
Nausea with or without vomiting
Frequent Urination
Frequent, Mild Headaches
Prenatal Diagnostic Tests Constipation
Ultrasound Sonography – high frequency Mood Swings
sound waves are directed into the abdomen. Faintness and Dizziness
Detects abnormalities, no. of fetuses, and sex. Raised Basal Body Temperature

Fetal MRI – uses powerful magnet and radio Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 Weeks) - First
images to generate detailed images of the body’s two weeks after conception. A new cell is formed.
organs and structures. This cell, containing the combined genetic
information from both parents, is referred to as
Chorionic Villus Sampling – small sample of zygote.
placenta is removed. Small risk of limb deformity.
Differentiation – specialization of the cells to
Amniocentesis – sample of amniotic fluid is perform various tasks
withdrawn and tested for chromosomal and
Blastocyst - a fluid-filled sphere, which floats
metabolic disorders.
freely in the uterus until the sixth day after
Maternal Blood Screening – identifies fertilization, when it begins to implant itself in the
pregnancies that have an elevated risk for birth uterine wall.
defects.
Trophoblast – outer layer of cells that later
provides nutrition and support for the embryo
SOME CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCED BY
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT Implantation - The attachment of the blastocyst
to the uterine wall, occurring at about day 6.
Physical and Physiological Traits - Not only do
monozygotic twins generally look alike, but they embryonic disk - thickened cell mass from
also are more concordant than dizygotic twins in which the embryo begins to develop.
their risk for such medical disorders. - Ectoderm: upper layer; the outer layer of
skin, the nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs,
Intelligence - Heredity exerts a strong influence
and the nervous system, the brain and
on general intelligence and, to a lesser extent, on
spinal cord.
specific abilities such as memory, verbal ability,
- Endoderm: inner layer; the digestive
and spatial ability. Intelligence is a polygenic
system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands,
trait; it is influenced by the additive effects of
and respiratory system.
large numbers of genes working together.
- Mesoderm: the middle layer, will develop
Personality and Psychopathology – Scientists and differentiate into the inner layer of
have identified genes directly linked with specific skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and
aspects of personality. circulatory systems.

Temperament - a person’s characteristic way of Amniotic sac - fluid-filled membrane that

approaching and reacting to situations. encases the developing embryo, protecting it and
Prenatal Development giving it room to move and grow.

Gestation (37 and 41 weeks) - the period Placenta - allows oxygen, nourishment, and
between conception and birth, an unborn child wastes to pass between mother and embryo. It is
undergoes dramatic processes of development. connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord.

gestational age - Age of an unborn baby, Embryonic Stage (2nd stage; 2 to 8 weeks) -
usually dated from the first day of an expectant characterized by rapid growth and development
mother’s last menstrual cycle. of major body systems and organs.

STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Organogenesis - Major body systems (uncontrollable, extended crying for no
(respiratory, digestive, and nervous system) apparent reason)
develop - Caffeine - Four or more cups of coffee a
day during pregnancy may increase the
Critical Period – most vulnerable to destructive risk of sudden death in infancy.
influences - Marijuana, Cocaine, Methamphetamine –
heavy marijuana use can lead to birth
Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage) –
defects, low birth weight, withdrawal-like
expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that is symptoms. Cocaine has been associated
unable to survive outside the womb with spontaneous abortion, delayed
growth, premature labor, low birth weight,
Stillbirth – miscarriage occurred after 20 weeks
small head size, birth defects, and
of gestation (approx. 5 months)
impaired neurological development.
Fetal Stage (8 Weeks to Birth) Final stage - - Methamphetamine exposure is
characterized by increased differentiation of body associated with fetal growth restriction.
parts and greatly enlarged body size Additionally, has been implicated in fetal
brain damage to areas of the brain
In addition, fetuses nearing full term show the involved in learning, memory, and control.
basic ability to recognize the voice of their
Maternal Illnesses
mother and of their native
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS) - disease caused by the human
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: MATERNAL immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which undermines
FACTORS functioning of the immune system. If an
expectant mother has the virus in her blood,
Teratogen - environmental agent, such as a perinatal transmission may occur: the virus may
virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere with
cross over to the fetus’s bloodstream through the
normal prenatal development.
placenta during pregnancy, labor, or delivery or,
Nutrition Maternal Weight after birth, through breast milk.
- Women of normal weight are less likely to
Rubella (German measles) - if contracted by a
have birth complications.
- Overweight women have risk of having woman before her 11th week of pregnancy, can
longer deliveries, need more health care cause deafness and heart defects in her baby.
services, gestational diabetes, cesarean
Offspring of mothers with diabetes are 3 to 4
delivery, birth defects etc.
times more likely than offspring of other women
- Omega-E, DHA, Folic Acid for the
to develop a wide range of birth defects.
development of nervous system
Maternal Anxiety, Stress, and Depression -
Malnutrition Some tension and worry during pregnancy are
- Results to fetal growth restriction and low normal and do not necessarily increase risks of
birth weight
birth complications, such as low birth weight
Physical Activity and Work Maternal Age - Chance of miscarriage or
- Moderate exercise is recommended to stillbirth rises with maternal age. Adolescent
reduce back pain, risks for gestational Mothers tend to have premature or underweight
diabetes and etc. babies

Drug Intake Outside environmental Hazards

- Thalidomide – caused stunted limbs,  Includes air pollution, radiation, chemicals
facial deformities, and defective organs  Fetal exposure to low level of
- Medical Drugs - Medical drugs that may environmental toxins may result to
be harmful are the antibiotic asthma, allergies, lupus
tetracycline; certain barbiturates,  X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-
opiates, and other central nervous system
term, low-birth weight babies
depressants; several hormones, including
diethylstilbestrol (DES) and androgens;
Paternal Factors
certain anticancer drugs, such as
methotrexate; Accutane, a drug often  Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco,
prescribed for severe acne; drugs used to radiation, pesticides, etc may result in
treat epilepsy; and antipsychotic drugs abnormal or poor quality sperm
- Alcohol - most common cause of mental  Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays
retardation and the leading preventable within the year prior to conception or had
cause of birth defects in the United States. a high lead exposure at work tends to
- Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) - have low birth weight and slowed fetal
combination of retarded growth, face and growth
body malformations, and disorders of the  Older fathers may be significant source of
central nervous system. birth defects due to damaged or
- Nicotine - single most important factor in deteriorated sperm such as dwarfism,
low birth weight in developed countries. schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ASD.
- Tobacco - increased risks of miscarriage,
growth retardation, stillbirth, small head
circumference, sudden infant death, colic
CHAPTER 4: Birth and Physical
Development During the First Three STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH

Years / Stage 1: Dilation of the Cervix

Pre-20th Century Childbirth  Longest stage, lasting 12-14 hours for a
- Childbirth was a female social ritual, with first-time mother, shorter in subsequent
women surrounded by female relatives births.
and neighbors.  Regular contractions (initially 15-20
- Midwives had no formal training and minutes apart) cause the cervix to dilate
provided advice, massages, potions, and and shorten.
other remedies.  Ends when the cervix is fully dilated (10
- Childbirth was risky, with high maternal cm) to allow the baby to descend.
and infant mortality rates.
- Women in rural areas returned to work Stage 2: Descent and Emergence of the
soon after birth; wealthier women rested Baby
longer.  Lasts 1-2 hours.
 Begins when the baby’s head moves
Modern Challenges: through the cervix into the vaginal canal
- In some developing countries, childbirth and ends when the baby is fully delivered.
remains dangerous with many women  If longer than 2 hours, assistance may be
delivering at home without skilled care. needed (forceps or vacuum extraction).
- Despite this, maternal mortality has  The baby is born but still attached to the
decreased by 47% since 1990. placenta by the umbilical cord.
20th Century Changes
Stage 3: Expulsion of the Placenta
- Childbirth became professionalized, with
 Lasts 10 minutes to 1 hour.
the rise of maternity hospitals.
 The placenta and remaining umbilical cord
- Hospital births increased from 5% in 1900
are expelled from the mother’s body.
to 65% by 1920, and now 98.7% of U.S.
- Improvements in medical practices
(antibiotics, blood transfusions,
Electronic fetal monitoring
anesthesia, hygiene) drastically reduced
- can be used to track the fetus’s heartbeat
maternal and infant mortality rates.
during labor and delivery and to indicate
how the fetal heart is responding to the
The "Medicalization" of Childbirth:
stress of uterine contractions.
- The shift towards hospital births led to
safer conditions but also introduced social
VAGINAL VERSUS CESAREAN DELIVERY
and emotional costs for women.
- Some women now prefer home births,
vaginal delivery - The usual method of
attended by nurse-midwives with medical
childbirth. Vaginal delivery also stimulates the
backup, claiming it can be as safe as
release of oxytocin, a hormone involved in
hospital births for low-risk pregnancies.
uterine contractions that stimulates maternal
Humanizing Hospital Births: behavior in animals.
- Hospitals are focusing on making
childbirth more personal and comfortable, cesarean delivery - surgically remove the baby
with features like birthing rooms, soft from the uterus through an incision in the
lighting, and partner involvement. mother’s abdomen. The operation is commonly
- Rooming-in policies allow babies to stay performed when labor progresses too slowly,
with mothers, promoting bonding and when the fetus seems to be in trouble, or when
feeding. the mother is bleeding vaginally. It is needed
- Efforts are being made to balance medical when the fetus is in the breech position (feet or
techniques with emotional support in buttocks first) or in the transverse position (lying
childbirth environments. crosswise in the uterus) or when the head is too
big to pass through the mother’s pelvis.
THE BIRTH PROCESS Cesarean deliveries carry risks of serious
complications for the mother, such as bleeding,
Labor - an apt term for the process of giving infection, damage to pelvic organs, and
birth. postoperative pain, and heighten risks of
problems in future pregnancies.
Parturition - the act or process of giving birth,
and it typically begins about 2 weeks before
MEDICATED VERSUS NONMEDICATED
delivery, when sharply rising estrogen levels
DELIVERY
stimulate the uterus to contract and the cervix to
become more flexible.
mid-nineteenth century - sedation with ether
Braxton-Hicks Contractions – false or chloroform became common practice as more
contractions births took place in hospitals.

Real labor contractions are more frequent, twentieth century - several alternative
rhythmic, and painful, and they increase in methods of natural childbirth or prepared
frequency and intensity childbirth were developed.
 suffer permanent brain injury caused by
Lamaze method - acknowledges that labor is anoxia, or hypoxia.
painful and teaches expectant mothers to work - Anoxia or hypoxia may occur during
actively with their bodies through controlled delivery because of repeated compression
breathing. of the placenta and umbilical cord with
each contraction
LeBoyer method - a woman gives birth in a o Anoxia – lack of oxygen
quiet room under low lights to reduce stress, The o Hypoxia – reduced oxygen supply
newborn is massaged to ease crying. - Meconium – stringy, greenish-black
waste matter formed in the fetal intestinal
submersion of the laboring mother in a tract
soothing pool of water. - Neonatal Jaundice – skin and eyeballs
look yellow caused by immaturity of the
Other methods use mental imagery, massage, liver
gentle pushing, and deep breathing.
MEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
Bradley Method – husbands as coaches, - The first few minutes, days, and weeks
relation for easier birth and prenatal nutrition and after birth are crucial for development.
exercise
Today, improvements in medicated delivery have Apgar Scale - One minute after delivery, and
led many mothers to choose pain relief, then again 5 minutes after birth, helps us
sometimes along with natural methods. remember its five subtests: appearance (color),
pulse (heart rate), grimace (reflex irritability),
pudendal block - local (vaginal) anesthesia, activity (muscle tone), and respiration
during the second stage of labor or if forceps are (breathing).
used.

analgesic (painkiller) - reduces the perception

of pain by depressing the activity of the central
nervous system. However, analgesics may slow
labor, cause maternal complications, and make
the baby less alert after birth.
Regional anesthesia - is injected into a space in
the spinal cord between the vertebrae in the
The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral
lumbar (lower) region, blocks the nerve pathways
Assessment Scale (NBAS) - a test that
that would carry the sensation of pain to the
evaluates a newborn’s responses to the
brain.
environment, including motor skills, reflexes,
mood changes, attention, and signs of central
doula - an experienced mentor, coach, helper
nervous system issues. It takes about 30 minutes,
who can furnish emotional support and
and scores reflect the baby’s best performance.
information and can stay at a woman’s bedside
throughout labor.
Neonatal Screening for Medical Conditions –
Children who inherit the enzyme disorder
THE NEWBORN BABY
phenylketonuria (PKU) will develop permanent
intellectual disability unless they are fed a special
Neonatal period - the first 4 weeks of life, is a
diet beginning in the first 3 to 6 weeks of life
time of transition from the uterus, where a fetus
is supported entirely by the mother, to an
Neonatal screening tests - given shortly after
independent existence.
birth, can detect conditions like phenylketonuria
(PKU), which can cause mental retardation if
SIZE AND APPEARANCE - At birth, 95 percent
untreated. Early diagnosis and diet can prevent
of full-term babies weigh between 5½ and 10
complications.
pounds and are between 18 and 22 inches long.
Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than
STATE OF AROUSAL - An infant’s physiological
girls, and a firstborn child is likely to weigh less at
and behavioral status at a given moment in the
birth than later borns.
periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep, and
activity.
fontanels - where the bones of the skull do not
meet.

Lanugo – fuzzy prenatal hair

Vernix Caseosa – oily protection against

infection that dries within the first few days

BODY SYSTEMS
- After birth, all of the baby’s systems and
functions must operate on their own.
- If a neonate does not begin breathing
within about 5 minutes, the baby may
 SURVIVAL AND HEALTH

infant mortality rate - Proportion of babies

born alive who die within the 1st year.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Infant Mortality –

Because causes and risk factors vary among
ethnic groups, efforts to further reduce infant
deaths need to focus on factors specific to each
ethnic group.

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) – (crib

death) is the sudden death of an infant under age
1 in which the cause of death remains
unexplained after a thorough investigation that
includes an autopsy.
COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBIRTH
Accidental Deaths – About 90 percent of all
Low Birth Weight Infants – weigh less than 5 injury deaths in infancy are due to one of five
pounds and 8 ounces at birth causes: suffocation, motor vehicle traffic
accidents, drowning, residential burns or fires,
Very Low birth Weight – less than 3 pounds 4 and falls
ounces

Extremely Low Birth – less than 2 pounds Immunization for Better Health

Pre-term Infants – born three weeks or more Such once-familiar and sometimes fatal childhood
before pregnancy reach full term (before the illnesses as measles, pertussis (whooping cough),
completion of 37 weeks of gestation) and polio are now largely preventable, thanks to
the development of vaccines that mobilize the
Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational body’s natural defenses.
Age Infants) – those whose birth weight is below
normal when the length of pregnancy is EARLY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
considered
Principles of Development
Progestin – might help in reducing preterm birth - cephalocaudal principle - growth occurs
from the top down
Extremely Preterm – born less than 28 weeks
- proximodistal principle - growth and
gestation
motor development proceed from the
Very Preterm – less than 33 weeks center of the body outward

Kangaroo Care – involves skin-to-skin contact in Physical Growth

which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held - Children grow faster during the first 3
upright against the parent’s bare chest to help years, especially during the first few
stabilize the preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and months, than they ever will again
breathing - The genes an infant inherits have a strong
One condition commonly faced by preterm babies influence on whether the child will be tall
is Respiratory Distress Syndrome wherein or short, thin or stocky, or in between
there is a lack of surfactant (lung-coating - Teething usually begins around 3 or 4
substance) that keeps air sacs from collapsing. months, when infants begin grabbing
everything in sight to put into their
POSTMATURITY mouths, but the first tooth may not
actually arrive until sometime between 5
Postmature Babies – tend to be long and this and 9 months or even later.
because they have kept growing in the womb but
have had an insufficient blood supply toward the
end of gestation
Nutrition
Postpartum Period
- Period after childbirth Breastfeeding is inadvisable if a baby has been
- Lasts for about 6 weeks or until the diagnosed with galactosemia (a genetic
mother’s body has completed the metabolic disorder), if the mother is infected with
adjustment and returned to nearly the HIV virus, Ebola, or any other infectious
prepregnant state. illness, if she has been exposed to radiation, or if
she is taking any drug that would not be safe for
Physical Adjustment the baby
- Loss of sleep that the primary caregiver
experiences during this period Solid Foods – Healthy babies should consume
- Sudden and dramatic hormone production nothing but breast milk or iron-fortified formula
- Estrogen and progesterone levels drop for the first 6 months. Most young children do not
steeply and remain low until the ovaries eat enough fruits or vegetables, or a sufficient
start producing again variety of vegetables, and, as they age into
toddlerhood, many consume increasing amounts Brain Growth Spurt begins at about the 3rd
of sugar-sweetened beverages trimester of gestation and continues until the 4th
year of life
Obesity – Children born to mothers who had a
Neurons – send and receive info in the brain
higher pre-pregnancy BMI or who gained a great
deal of weight during the pregnancy were at Glia or Glial Cells – nourish and protect the
higher risk, as were infants who weighed a great neurons
deal at birth or gained weight quickly as infants
Axon – sends signals to other neurons
Malnutrition – Chronic malnutrition is caused by
Dendrites – receive incoming messages
factors such as poverty low-quality foods, poor
dietary patterns, contaminated water, unsanitary Synapses – tiny gaps which are bridged with the
conditions, insufficient hygiene, inadequate help of chemicals
health care, and diarrheal diseases and other
Integration – neurons that control various
infections.
groups of muscle coordinate their activities
Building the Brain Differentiation – each neuron takes on a
- The central nervous system includes the specific, specialized structure and function
brain and spinal cord, as well as a
peripheral network of nerves extending to Cell Death – pruning of cells which is a way to
every part of the body calibrate the developing brain to the local
environment and help it work more efficiently,
Brain Anatomy and Development beings during the prenatal period and continues
- By birth, growth spurt of the spinal cord after birth
and brain stem (the part of the brain
Myelination – enables signals to travel faster
responsible for such basic bodily functions
and more smoothly by coating the neural
as breathing, heart rate, body
pathways with myelin
temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle)
has nearly run its course Children who grew up in deprived environment
may have depressed brain activity
cerebellum - (the part of the brain that
maintains balance and motor coordination) grows Neuroconstructivist View – biological process
fastest during the 1st year of life and environmental conditions influences
development, the brain is plastic, and the child’s
cerebrum - the largest part of the brain, is
cognitive development is closed linked to
divided into right and left halves, or hemispheres,
development of the brain
each with specialized functions. This
specialization of the hemispheres is called Emphasized the importance of considering
lateralization interactions between experience and gene
expression in the brain’s development
left hemisphere - is mainly concerned with
language and logical thinking, Reflex Behavior – automatic, innate response to
stimulation which are controlled by the lower
right hemisphere - with visual and spatial
brain centers that govern involuntary processes
functions such as map reading and drawing.
Primitive reflexes – includes sucking, rooting,
corpus callosum - Joins the two hemispheres. Is
and the Moro reflex are related to instinctive
like a giant switchboard of fibers connecting the
needs for survival and protection or may support
hemispheres and allowing them to share
the early connection to the caregiver
information and coordinate commands
Postural Reflexes – reactions to changes in
position or balance
Occipital –
Early Reflexes – Such an automatic, innate
response to stimulation is called a reflex behavior

Locomotor Reflex – resemble voluntary

movements that do not appear until months after
the reflexes have disappeared
concerned with visual processing
Early Reflexes Disappear during the first 6-12
Parietal – involved with integrating sensory info months’
from the body; movement and manipulation of
objects Early Sensory Capacity
- Touch is the first sense to develop, the
Temporal – interpret smells and sounds and most mature sensory system for the first
involved in memory several months
Frontal Lobe – involved in high-order processes - Newborns can and do feel pain
such as reasoning and problem solving - Sense of smell and taste begin to develop
in the womb
Cerebral Cortex – outer surface of the - Newborns strongly dislike bitter flavors
cerebrum; grows rapidly in the first few months - Auditory Discrimination develops rapidly
and are mature by age 6 months after birth
 - At 4 months, infant’s brain responds more precise range of movement and
preferentially to speech more effective control of the environment
- Vision is the least developed sense at birth
- Binocular Vision (the use of both eyes to Denver Developmental Screening Test - used
focus) does not develop until 4-5 months to chart progress between ages 1 month and 6
- Infants like attractive faces years and to identify children who are not
developing normally. The test measures gross
motor skills (those using large muscles), such as
rolling over and catching a ball, and fine motor
skills (using small muscles), such as grasping a
rattle and copying a circle.

Head Control
- At birth: Can turn head side to side while
lying.
- 2-3 months: Lift head higher, may roll
over.
- 4 months: Can keep head erect when
supported.

Hand Control
- Newborns: Have a grasp reflex.
- 3.5 months: Can grasp medium-sized
objects.
- 7-11 months: Develop pincer grasp (pick
up tiny objects).
- 15 months: Can stack two cubes.
- After 3 years: Can copy a circle.

Locomotion
- 3+ months: Rolls over deliberately.
- 6 months: Sits without support.
- 8.5 months: Sits up independently.
Sleep - 6-10 months: Crawling/creeping begins,
- Sleep restores, replenishes, and rebuilds leading to cognitive and social changes.
our brains and bodies

Evolutionary Perspective: all animals sleep

and this sleep is necessary for survival ( protect
them at night)

Restorative Perspective: sleep replenishes and

rebuilds the brain and the body such as clearing
out neural tissues

Plasticity Perspective: sleep is critical for brain

plasticity, i.e., increases synaptic connections
between neurons which is linked to improved
consolidation of memories

Newborns sleep approx. 18 hrs/day Crawling – helps babies learn to judge distances
and perceive depth
Non-REM Sleep – no eye movement and sleep is
more quiet Social Referencing – babies learn to look at
caregivers for clues as to whether a situation is
Rapid Eye Movement (REM Sleep) – the eyes
secure or frightening
flutter beneath the closed lids
- Usually appears 1 hr after non-rem
Motor Development and Perception
(adults)
- Half of infant’s sleep is REM
Depth perception - the ability to perceive
May provide infants with added self-
objects and surfaces in three dimensions.
stimulation
Haptic perception - ability to acquire
- Promote brain development in infancy
information by handling objects rather than just
- When adults wake up from REM Sleep,
looking at them.
they report dreaming
- There is a positive link between infant
Sensory Perception – enable infants to learn
sleep and cognitive functioning
about themselves and their environment so they
can make better judgements about how to
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
navigate in it
Milestones of Motor Development
- Babies first learn simple skills and then Visual Guidance – the use of eyes to guide the
combine them into increasingly complex movements of the hands.
systems of action, which permit a wider or
Clumsy corrective movements are more likely to In other cultures, features of the caregiving
be illustrating immature cerebellar development. environment may slow down motor development
slightly
Kinetic Cues – produced by movement of the
object or the observer or both Emotional and Psychological Adjustment
- Emotional fluctuations are common
Posture – dynamic process that is linked with - Postpartum Blues – 2-3 days after birth
sensory information in the skin, joints, and they feel depressed, anxious, and upset
muscles which tell us where we are in space - Postpartum Depression – involves a
Swaddling shows slight delays in motor major depressive episode that typically
development occurs about four weeks after delivery or
at least a two-week period of having
Perceptual Constancy – sensory stimulation is trouble coping with their daily task
changing but perception of the physical world - Postpartum Depression could affect how
remains constant. Allows infants to perceive that the mother interacts with her infant
their world as stable - Fathers may also experience depression or
they may feel replaced by the baby
Size Constancy – recognition that an object
remains the same even though the retinal image Bonding
of the object changes as you move toward or - Formation of connection, especially a
away from the object physical bond between parents and the
newborn in the period shortly after birth
Shape Constancy – an object remains the same - Newborn MUST have close contact with
shape even though its orientation changes the mother in the first few days of like to
develop optimally is NOT true
Theories of Motor Development
Chapter 5: Cognitive Development
Ecological Theory of Perception
- locomotor development depends on during the First Three Years
infants’ increasing sensitivity to the /
interaction between their changing
physical characteristics and new and BEHAVIORIST APPROACH
varied characteristics of their environment
Visual Cliff - a steep drop down to the Classical Conditioning - a person learns to
floor make a reflex, or involuntary, response to a
stimulus that originally did not bring about the
Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory
response.
- Behavior emerges in the movement from
the self-organization of multiple Operant Conditioning - focuses on
components consequences of behaviors and how they affect
- Opportunities and constraints presented the likelihood of that behavior occurring again
by the infant’s physical characteristics,
motivation, energy level, motor strength, PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
and position in the environment at a
particular moment in time affect whether Intelligent Behavior - presumed to be goal
and how an infant achieves a goal oriented, meaning it exists for the purposes of
- A solution emerges as the baby explores attaining a goal
various combinations of movements and
IQ (intelligence quotient) tests - consist of
assembles those that most efficiently
questions or tasks that are supposed to show how
contribute to that end
much of the measured abilities a person has by
- Infants modulate their movement patterns
comparing that person’s performance with norms
to fit a new task by exploring and
established by a large group of test-takers who
selecting possible configurations
were in the standardization sample.
- Infant actively put together skill to achieve
a goal within the constraints set by the Testing Infants and Toddlers
infant’s body and environment.
The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler
Development (Bailey-III) - is a developmental
test designed to assess children from 1 month to
3½ years
Ethnic and Cultural Influences on Motor
Development
Assessing the Early Home Environment
Examining the influence of culture on motor
development provides an excellent opportunity to Home Observation for Measurement of the
consider the intersection of nature and nurture Environment (HOME) - trained observers
interview the primary caregiver and rate on a
Infants from different cultures may engage in
yes-or-no checklist the intellectual stimulation
different levels of activity and may have more or
and support observed in a child’s home.
less practice with particular motor skills
Early Intervention - a systematic process of
planning and providing therapeutic and
educational services for families that need help in Deferred Imitation - is a more complex ability
meeting infants’, toddlers’, and preschool requiring long-term memory. Deferred imitation is
children’s developmental needs the reproduction of an observed behavior after
the passage of time. As the behavior is no longer
Piagetian Approach
happening, deferred imitation requires that a
Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage stored representation of the action be recalled

Schemes - organized patterns of thought and Symbolic Development

behavior - One aspect of symbolic development is
the growth of pictorial competence, the
Circular Reactions - in which an infant learns to ability to understand the nature of
reproduce events originally discovered by chance pictures
Substages
Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)
- the journey from reflex behavior to the
Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control over
them beginnings of thought is a long, slow one.
Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking - For a year and a half or so, babies learn
whenever they want to) only from their senses and movements;
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) not until the last half of the 2nd year do
Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance
they make the breakthrough to conceptual
Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp objects
thought
They turn towards the sounds
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
Information-Processing Approach
Repeat actions that brings interesting results
Learns about causality Habituation - repeated or continuous exposure
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
to a stimulus (such as a shaft of light) reduces
months)
Coordinate previously learned schemes and use previously
attention to that stimulus (such as looking away)
learned behaviors to attain their goals
Dishabituation – if a new sight or sound is
Can anticipate events
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
presented, the baby’s attention is generally
Purposefully vary their actions to see results captured once again, and the baby will reorient
Actively explore the world toward the interesting stimulus and once again
Trial and error in solving problems sucking slows
6. Mental Combinations
Can think about events and anticipate consequences Visual Preference – tendency to spend more
without always resorting action time looking at one sight rather than another
Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can
pretend Visual Recognition Memory – ability that
Transition to Pre-operational stage depends on the capacity to form and refer to
Learns about numbers
mental representations

Representational ability – the ability to Senses are unconnected at birth and are only
mentally represent objects and actions in gradually integrated through experience
memory, largely through symbols such as words,
Cross-Modal Transfer – the ability to use
numbers, and mental pictures—frees toddlers
information gained from one sense to guide
from immediate experience
another – as when a person negotiates a dark
room by feeling for the location of familiar objects

Information Processing as a Predictor of

Intelligence
- Because of weak correlations between
infants’ scores on developmental tests
such as the Bayley scales and their later
IQ, many psychologists assumed that the
cognitive functioning of infants had little in
common with that of older children and
adults
- Four core cognitive domains appear to be
associated with later IQ: attention,
processing speed, memory, and
Object Concept representational competence (as indexed
by cross-modal transfer and the ability to
Object Permanence - the realization that anticipate future events)
something continues to exist when out of sight
Information Processing and Piagetian
Dual Representation Hypothesis – children Abilities
under age of 3 have difficulty grasping spatial - Categorization
relationships because of the need to keep more - Causality
than one mental representation in mind at the - Object Permanence
same time - Number
Cognitive Neuroscience Approach - examines
Imitation
the hardware of the central nervous system to
identify what brain structures are involved in Pragmatics – the system of using appropriate
specific areas of cognition conversation and knowledge of how to effectively
use language in context
Implicit memory - remembering that occurs
without effort or even conscious awareness;
Infants start using gestures at about 7-15
Habits and skills; Develop early and is
months. As early as 5 months, infants recognize
demonstrated.
their name
Explicit memory – (declarative memory) is
conscious or intentional recollection, usually of Receptive Vocabulary – words that the child
facts, names, events, or other things that can be understands.
stated or declared.
Spoken Vocabulary – words the child
During the second half of the first year, the expresses/uses
prefrontal cortex and associated circuitry develop
the capacity of working memory (short-term Overextension – tendency to apply a word to
storage of information the brain is actively objects that are inappropriate for the word’s
processing) meaning by going beyond the set of referents an
adult would use (e.g. “Dada” not only for her Dad
Working memory may be responsible for the slow
but also to other male strangers)
development of object permanence

Underextension – tendency to apply the word

Social-Contextual Approach
too narrowly; occurs when children fail to use a
Researchers influenced by Vygotsky’s
word to name a relevant event or object
sociocultural theory and working within the social
contextual approach are interested in how
Children between 18 to 24 months, speak in two-
cultural context affects early social interactions
word utterances
Guided participation - mutual interactions with
Telegraphic Speech – the use of short and
adults that help structure children’s activities and
precise words without grammatical markers such
bridge the gap between a child’s understanding
as articles, etc. (“Momi give water”)
and an adult’s

Regions involved in Language: Broca’s Area

Language Development
(Speech Production) and Wernicke’s Area
(Language comprehension, sounds)
Language - communication system based on
words and grammar.
Aphasia – loss or impairment in language
processing
Infinite Generativity – the ability to produce
and comprehend an endless no. of meaningful
Language Acquisition Device – biological
sentences using a finite set of words and rules
endowment that enables the child to detect
certain features and rules of language
Sequence of Early Language Development
Before babies can use words, they make their
The support and involvement of caregivers and
needs and feelings known through sounds that
teachers greatly facilitate a child’s language
progress from crying to cooing and babbling, then
to accidental imitation, and then deliberate
Child-Directed Speech – language spoken with
imitation. These sounds are known as
a higher-than-normal pitch, slower tempo, and
prelinguistic speech
exaggerated intonation, with simple words and
sentences
Pre-linguistic Speech – sounds that progress
from crying to cooing and babbling
Recasting – rephrasing something the child has
said that might lack appropriate morphology
Crying – newborn’s first means of
communication
Expanding – adding information to a child’s
incomplete sentence
Between 6-3 months, babies start cooing. By 6-10
months, they start babbling
Labeling – name objects that children
Storybook reading especially benefits children
Phonology – sound system of a language

Morphology – system of meaningful units

involved in word formation

Syntax – the system that involves the way words

are combined to form acceptable phrases and
sentences

Semantics – the system that involves the

meaning of words and sentences
Classic Theories of Language Acquisition:
The Nature-Nurture Debate

Nativism emphasizes the active role of the

learner

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) programs

children’s brains to analyze the language they
hear and to figure out its rules

Variations in Language Development

Bilingual children often use elements of both

languages, sometimes in the same utterance—a
phenomenon called code mixing

This ability to shift from one language to another

is called code switching

Characteristics of Early Speech

Early speech has a character all its own, no

matter what language a child is speaking

Young children understand grammatical

relationships they cannot yet express

Overregularization occurs when children

inappropriately apply a syntactical rule

Children also make categorical mistakes by either

underextending or overextending word meaning

Influences on Early Language Development

- Brain Development
- Social Interaction and the Linguistic
Environment
- Child-Directed Speech - sometimes called
“parentese,” “motherese,” or baby talk