H. T. I.

Publications of
THE HIGHER TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE – TENTH OF RAMADAN CITY
Course Code: Eng. 004 Course Name: Engineering Drawing
& Projection (2)

Lecture notes in

Engineering Drawing & Projection (2)

By
Dr. Ghada El-Sawah

And
Dr. Ahmed Hussein Elfeky

Editing By
Eng. Mohamed Mahmoud

September 2020
 Preface

The previous course of Engineering Drawing and projection 1 shows clearly that it

is a universal language of engineers irrespective of the language spoken. The

course covered the basic aspects of engineering drawing practice required for first

level in engineering.

This second course of Engineering Drawing and projection 2 is designed to be a

comprehensive guide consists of 5 chapters that covering basic topics and also

includes selection of the examples given experience to develop the professional

level drawing skills. Drawing for more complicated geometrical shapes such as

machine parts will be studied.

The first chapter gives more practice in deducing the missing view for machine

parts and presents the theory of sectioning for Sections and sectional views to show

hidden detail more clearly. Types of Sectioning Views also discussed. The process

of unfolding the three-dimensional ‘solid’ which is called ‘development’ is

presented in chapter two that deals with the development of the shapes.

Basics of drawing steel structure sections are presented in chapter three and

followed by methods and parts used for fastening of different parts together in

chapter four. The process of putting component parts together in which is called an

assembly drawing by using fasteners is explained in chapter five .

V
 In conclusion, may we wish all readers every success in their studies and careers.

We hope they will obtain much satisfaction from employment in the absorbing

activities related to construct and present of accurately defined engineering

drawings.

Dr. Ahmed Hussein Elfeky

Dr. Ghada El Sawah

VI
 Chapter 1
Sectioning

Sections and sectional views are used to show hidden detail more clearly. They are created by
using a cutting plane to cut the object. A sectional view, displays the outline of the cutting plane
and all visible outlines which can be seen beyond the cutting plane to improve visualization of
interior features. Section views are used when important hidden details are in the interior of an
object. These details appear as hidden lines in one of the orthographic principal views; therefore,
their shapes are not very well described by pure orthographic projection.

There are a variety of sectioning methods for different applications discussed throughout this
chapter.

1.1: Cutting Plane:

The sectional view is created by placing an imaginary cutting plane through the object that
cuts away the area to be exposed. The adjacent view becomes the sectional view by removing the
portion of the object between the viewer and the cutting plane, fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 (a): Cutting plane

1
 Fig. 1.1 (b): Cutting plane and sectional view

The sectional view should project from the view that has the cutting plane as you normally
project a view in multi view.

1.2: Cutting-plane Lines:

It is a thick line representing the cutting plane as shown in fig. 1.2. The cutting-plane line can
be drawn using alternating long and two short dashes, or evenly spaced dashes. The long dashes
can vary in length depending on the size of the drawing, but the short dashes are generally .25 in.
(6 mm) in length. The cutting-plane line is capped on the ends, with arrow heads showing the
direction of sight of the sectional view. The cutting-plane line arrow heads maintain the same 3:1
length-to-width ratio as dimension line arrow heads. Cutting plane line arrow heads are generally
twice the size of dimension line arrow heads, so they show up better on the drawing. If the
dimension line arrow heads are .125 (3 mm) long on your drawing, then make the cutting-plane
line arrow heads .25 in. (6 mm) long.

Fig. 1.2: Cutting plane lines

2
 This depends on the size of the drawing. When the extent of the cutting plane is obvious, only
the ends of the cutting-plane line can be used. Such treatment of the cutting plane also helps keep
the view clear of excess lines. The sectional view should be projected from and perpendicular to
the cutting-plane line and placed as one of the standard principal multi-views.
The cutting planes and related sectional views should be labeled with letters beginning with AA
as shown in fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3: Labeled cutting plane lines and related sectional view

The cutting-plane line labels should be placed near the arrow heads. An option is to place only
one identification letter at one arrow head when a continuous cutting-plane line is used and the
application is clear. The text height for cutting-plane line labels and the correlated view
identification is generally the same text height used for drawing titles. When the cutting plane
line has labels A on each end, then the sectional view has the related title SECTION A-A placed
below the sectional view. When there is more than one sectional view on a drawing, the
additional cutting-plane lines and views are labeled BB, CC, and so on.

1.3: Section Lines (Hatching Lines):

Section lines are thin lines used in the view of the section to show where the cutting-plane line
has cut through material, fig. 1.4. Section lines are usually drawn equally spaced at 45° but
cannot be parallel or perpendicular to any line of the object and must never be drawn
horizontally or vertically.

3
 The space between section lines can vary depending on the size of the object, but the
minimum space recommended is .06 in. (1.5 mm), fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.4: Section lines represent the material being cut by the cutting plane

Fig. 1.5: The space between section lines according the part size

Figure 1.6 shows the different Symbols for Section Lining.

4
 Figure 1.6: Symbols for Section Lining

1.4: Types of Sections:

1.4.1: Full Sections:

A full section is drawn when the cutting plane extends completely through the object, usually
along a center plane as shown in fig. 1.7.
The object shown in fig. 1.8 could have used two full perpendicular sections to further clarify
hidden features. In such a case, the cutting planes and related views are labeled. The cutting-
plane line can be omitted when the relationship between views is obvious.

5
It is normally best to show the cutting-plane line for clarity.

Fig. 1.7: Two parallel full sections object

Fig. 1.8: Two perpendicular full sections object

1.4.2: Half Sections:

A half section is used when a symmetrical object requires sectioning. The cutting-plane line
of a half section removes one quarter of the object. The advantage of a half section is the
sectional view shows half of the object in section and the other half of the object as it normally
appears in multi view without section. The name half section comes from the idea that only half
of the sectional view is sectioned, fig. 1.9. Notice that a center line is used in the sectional view

6
to separate the sectioned portion from the un-sectioned portion. Hidden lines are generally
omitted from sectional views unless their use improves clarity, fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.9: Half section

Fig. 1.10: Method of obtaining half sectional view

1.4.3: Offset Sections:

Staggered interior features of an object are sectioned by allowing the cutting-plane line to
offset through the features creating an offset section as shown in fig. 1.11.

7
 Fig. 1.11: Changes in direction of a section line

The cutting-plane line for an offset section is generally drawn using 90° turns where it offsets
through the staggered features as shown in fig. 1.12.

Fig. 1.12: Offset section using 90° turns

Figure 1.12, shows that there is no line in the sectional view indicating a change in direction of
the cutting-plane line. Normally, the cutting-plane line in an offset section extends completely
through the object to display the location of the section clearly. A cutting plane line is always
used when the cutting plane is bent or offset or when the sectional view is nonsymmetrical.

8
1.4.4: Revolved Sections:
For many drawings only a portion of a complete view needs to be shown in section to
improve the clarity of the drawing.
Two additional types of sectional views are introduced. Revolved and removed sections are
used to show the cross-sectional shape of ribs, spokes, or arms, when the shape is not obvious in
the regular views. End views are often not needed when a revolved section is used.

For a revolved section a center line is drawn through the shape on the plane to be described.
The part is imagined to be rotated 90°, and the view that would be seen when rotated is
superimposed on the view. If the revolved section does not interfere with the view on which it is
revolved, then the view is not broken unless it would facilitate clearer dimensioning. When the
revolved section interferes with or passes through lines on the view on which it is revolved, the
view is usually broken. Often the break is used to shorten the length of the object. When
superimposed on the view, the outline of the revolved section is a thin continuous line, Fig. 1.13.

(a)

9
 (b)

Fig. 1.13: Revolved Sections

1.4.5: Removed Sections:

The removed section differs from the revolved section in that the section is removed to an open
area on the drawing instead of being drawn directly on the view. Whenever practical, sectional
views should be projected perpendicular to the cutting plane and be placed in the normal position
for first-angle projection, Figure 1.14, the removed section is drawn to an enlarged scale for
clarification and easier dimensioning. Removed sections of symmetrical parts are placed on the
extension of the center line where possible.

Fig. 1.14: Placement of removed sectional views

11
1.4.6: Aligned Section:
Similar to the offset section, the aligned section cutting plane line staggers to pass through
offset features of an object. Normally the change in direction of the cutting-plane line is less than
90° in an aligned section. When this section is taken, the sectional view is drawn as if the cutting
plane is rotated to a plane perpendicular to the line of sight as shown in fig. 1.15.
A cutting-plane line is always used when the cutting plane is bent, offset or when the sectional
view is nonsymmetrical.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 1.15: Aligned Sections

11
1.4.7: Auxiliary Sections:
Auxiliary sections may be used to supplement the principal views used in orthographic
projections. A sectional view projected on an auxiliary plane, inclined to the principal planes of
projection, shows the cross-sectional shapes of features such as arms, ribs and so on.
In Fig. 1.16, auxiliary cutting plane X-X is used to obtain the auxiliary section X-X.

Fig. 1.16: Auxiliary section

1.4.8: Local Sections:

It is not always necessary to draw a complete section through a component if a small amount
of detail only needs to be illustrated. A typical example is shown in fig. 1.17 where a keyway is
drawn in a section. The irregular line defines the boundary of the section. It is not required to add
a section plane to this type of view.

Fig. 1.17: Local Section

12
1.4.9: Successive Sections:
Successive sections may be placed separately, with designations for both cutting planes and
sections or may be arranged below the cutting planes. Note that where successive sections are
drawn, each view only gives the detail at that section plane and not additional background
information. Fig. 1.18 gives the details at each of the section planes in a much closer and less
remote arrangement.

Fig. 1.18: Successive Sections

1.5: Sections through thin material:

Many products are manufactured from very thin materials which would be virtually
impossible to cross hatch in a sectional view and in these cases it is usual to make them entirely
black. Where however two or more thin sections are adjacent to each other, a gap is left so that
the profile of the separate components is clearly defined. A compound stanchion used in
structural steelwork and drawn to reduced scale is shown in fig. 1.19. The same situation applies
with sections through sheet-metal fabrications, gaskets, seals and packings.

Fig. 1.19: Sections through thin material

13
1.6: Ribs in section:
To avoid giving a false impression of thickness and solidity, ribs, webs, gear teeth, and other
similar flat features are not hatched with section lining even though the cutting plane slices them.
For example, in Figure 2.18, the cutting plane A–A slices through the center of the vertical web,
or rib, and the web is not sectioned. Thin features are not hatched even though the cutting plane
passes lengthwise through them, section A-A. If the cutting plane passes crosswise through a rib,
the cut area should be hatched, section B-B, fig. 1.20.

Fig. 1.20: Ribs in sections

1.7: Un-sectioned Features:

Specific features of an object are commonly left un-sectioned in a sectional view if the
cutting-plane line passes through and parallel to the feature. The types of features that are left un-
sectioned for clarity are bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, rods, shafts, ribs, webs, spokes, bearings, gear
teeth, pins, and keys, fig. 1.21.

14
 (f) (g)

Fig. 1.21: Examples for un-sectioned Features (not to be hatched)

1.8: Rules to be considered in sectioning:

1. A sectional view shows the part of the component in front of the sectioning plane arrows.
In third-angle projection the sectional view is placed on the side behind the sectioning
viewing plane, while in first-angle projection it is placed on the side in front of the
sectional viewing plane.
15
 2. Material which has been cut by the sectioning plane is cross-hatched.
3. A sectional view must not have any full lines drawn over cross-hatched areas. A full line
represents a corner or edge which cannot exist on a face which has been cut by a plane.
4. As a general rule, dimensions are not inserted in cross-hatched areas, but where it is
unavoidable, it may be done as previously mentioned

1.9: Solved Examples:

(1)

LEFT SIDE VIEW SECTIONAL ELEVATION AT A-A

16
(2)

ELEVATION

OFFSET SECTIONAL PLAN AT A-A

17
(3)

HALF SECTIONAL ELEVATION AT A-A

PLAN

18
(4)

19
(5)

21
(6)

21
(7)

22
Exercise:
1: For the following mechanical parts deduce the missing view:

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29
31
31
32
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45
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49
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2: For the following mechanical parts draw the sectional views as required:

56
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59
61
61
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64
65
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68
69
71
71
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75
`

76
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 `

78
79
`

81
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`

83
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111
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 Chapter 2

Developments

The process of unfolding the three-dimensional ‘solid’ is called ‘development’. The sheet
material must be shaped so that, after it is bent, we have the correct size and shape. Then a
component is to be made of sheet material, the designer must not only visualize and draw the
final three-dimensional component, but also calculate and draw the shape of the component in
the form that it will take when marked out on the two-dimensional sheet material.

The developments of shapes of most engineering components as whole, or parts of prisms,

pyramids, cylinders or cones are presented in this chapter which deals with the development of
some of these shapes.

2.1: Development of Prisms:

Figure 2.1 shows how a square prism is unfolded and its development obtained. Note that
where there are corners in the undeveloped solid, these are shown as dotted lines in the
development.

Fig.2.1: Developing a square prism.

123
2.2: Development of Cylinders:
If you painted the curved surface of a cylinder and, while the paint was wet, placed the
cylinder on a flat surface then rolled it once, the pattern that the paint left on the flat surface
would be the development of the curved surface of the cylinder.

Figure 2.2, shows the shape that would evolve if the cylinder was cut obliquely at one end.
The length of the development would be π D, the circumference. The oblique face has been
divided into 12 equal parts and numbered. You can see where each number will touch the flat
surface as the cylinder is rolled.

Fig. 2.2: The development of a cylinder.

2.2.1: Developing a cylinder in elevation with a circular piece cut:

The plan of the cylinder is divided into 12 equal sectors and the location of the sectors that are
within the circular cut-out are projected down to the front elevation and across to the
development. There are some more points that must also be plotted.

124
These are 3`, 5`, 9` and 11`. Their positions can be seen most easily on the front elevation and
they are projected up to the plan. The plan shows how far they are away from points 3, 5, 9 and
11 and these distances, a and b , can be transferred to the development. The exact positions of
these points can then be projected across from the front elevation to the development.

Fig. 2.3: Developing a cylinder with a circular piece cut.

2.2.2: Developing an intersecting cylinder:

The shape of the development is determined by the shape of the line of intersection.
Once this has been found, the development is found using the same methods as in previous case.

125
 Fig. 2.4: Developing an intersecting cylinder.

2.2.3: Developing both intersecting cylinders:

Extra points are added to the circumference of the larger cylinder (2`, 3`, 11` and 12`) so that
the development can be drawn more accurately. The diameters of the two cylinders are different;
therefore the lengths of the development are different. Both cylinders are divided into 12 equal
sectors and the points where these sectors meet the line of intersection are different on each
development, fig. 2.5.

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 Fig. 2.5: Developing both intersecting cylinders.

2.3: Development of Pyramids:

If a pyramid is tipped over so that it lies on one of its sides and is then rolled so that each of
its sides touches in turn, the development is traced out. The development is formed within a
circle whose radius is equal to the true length of one of the corners of the pyramid, fig. 2.6.

127
 Fig. 2.6: developing of a pyramid

2.3.1: Developing the sides of the frustum of a square pyramid:

The true length of a corner of the pyramid can be seen in the front elevation. An arc is drawn,
radius equal to this true length, center the apex of the pyramid. A second arc is drawn, radius
equal to the distance from the apex of the cone to the beginning of the frustum, center the apex
of the cone. The width of one side of the pyramid, measured at the base, is measured on the plan
and this is stepped round the larger arc four times, fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7: Developing the sides of the frustum of a square pyramid

128
2.3.2: Developing the sides of a hexagonal frustum with an oblique cut:

Fig. 2.8: Developing of a hexagonal frustum with an oblique cut

2.4: Development of Cones:

The development forms a sector of a circle whose radius is equal to the slant height of the
cone. The length of the arc of the sector is equal to the circumference of the base of the cone.
If the base of the cone is divided into 12 equal sectors that are numbered from 1 to 12, the points
where the numbers touch the flat surface as the cone is rolled can be seen, fig. 2.9.

Fig. 2.9: Developing of a cone

129
2.4.1: Developing the frustum of a cone:
The plan and elevation of the frustum of a cone are shown in Fig. 2.10; the plan is divided
into 12 equal sectors. The arc shown as dimension A is 1/12 of the circumference of the base of
the cone.
With center at the apex of the cone draw two arcs, one with a radius equal to the distance from
the apex to the top of the frustum (measured along the side of the cone) and the other equal to the
slant height of the cone. With dividers measure distance A and step this dimension around the
larger arc 12 times. (This will not give an exact measurement of the circumference at the base of
the cone but it is a good approximation.)

Fig. 2.10: Developing the frustum of a cone

2.4.2: Developing the frustum of a cone with an oblique cut:

Divide the plan into 12 equal sectors and number them from 1 to 12. Project these down to
the front elevation and draw lines from each number to the apex A. You can see where each of
these lines crosses the oblique top of the frustum. Now draw the basic development of the cone
and number each sector from 1 to 12 and draw a line between each number and the apex A.
The lines A 1 and A 7 on the front elevation are the true length of the slant height of the cone.

131
In fact, all of the lines from A to each number are equal in length but, on the front elevation,
lines A 2 to A 6 and A 8 to A 12 are shorter than A 1 and A 7 because they are sloping ‘inwards’
towards A.
The true lengths from A to the oblique top of the frustum on these lines are found by
projecting horizontally across to the line A 1. Here, the true length can be swung round with
compasses to its respective sector and the resulting series of points joined together with a neat
curve, fig. 2.11.

Fig. 2.11: Developing the frustum of a cone with an oblique cut

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 Chapter 3
Steel Structures

Steel-framed buildings require structural engineering and shop drawings. As a drafter in an

engineering or architectural firm, you may be drafting engineering drawings similar to the one
shown in fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1: Structural Steel Engineering Drawing

3.1: Common Structural Steel Structure Shapes:

Structural steels are commonly identified as plates, bars, or shape configurations. Plates are
flat pieces of steel of various thickness used at the intersection of different members and for
Structural steel is also available in several different manufactured shapes as shown in fig. 3.2.
Plates are typically specified on a drawing by giving the thickness, width, and length in that

order and with or without inch marks, for example, 1/4 x 6 x 10. The symbol is often used
to specify plate material.

Bars are the smallest of structural steel products and are manufactured in round, square,
rectangular, flat, or hexagonal cross sections. Bars are often used as supports or braces for other
steel parts or connectors. Flat bars are usually specified on a drawing by giving the width,
thickness, and length, in that order.

132
 Angles are structural steel components that have an L shape. The legs of the angle can be
either equal or unequal in length but are usually equal in thickness. Channels have a squared C
cross-sectional area and are designated with the letters C or MC.

Structural tees are produced from W, S, and M steel shapes. Common designations include
WT, ST, and MT. Structural tubing is manufactured in square, rectangular, and round cross-
sectional configurations. These members are used as columns to support loads from other
members. Tubes are also commonly used for beams and truss members. Tubes are specified by
the size of the outer wall followed by the thickness of the wall. Steel pipe is also commonly used
for columns and bracing. Available steel pipe strengths are standard, extra strong, and double-
extra strong. The wall thickness increases with each type.

Fig. 3.2: Standard Structural Steel Shapes

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Steel Sections:

STEEL PLATE:
PL b x t

ANGLE SECTION:
𝐚×𝐛
𝐋 𝐭

134
T – SECTION:
𝐚𝐱𝐛
T𝐭
𝟏 𝐱 𝐭𝟐

I – SECTION:
𝒂𝒙𝒃
I
𝒕𝟏 𝒙 𝒕𝟐

135
C – SECTION:
𝐚𝐱𝐛
C
𝐭𝟏 𝐱 𝐭𝟐

Z – SECTION:
𝒂𝒙𝒃
Z
𝒕𝟏 𝒙 𝒕𝟐

136
3.2: Steel Structure Shape Specification:
When specifying a steel shape on a drawing, the shape identification letter is followed by the
depth multiplied by the weight in pounds per linear foot. For example; W 12 x 22 and C 6 x 10.5.

The AISC Manual of Steel Construction, specific information regarding dimensions for
detailing and dimensioning is clearly provided along with typical connection details. The
representative numbers for the W 12 x 22 wide flanges and the C 6 x 10.5 are shown in fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Dimensions elements of the wide flange and channel shapes

The W, S, and M shapes all have an I-shaped cross section and are often referred to as I
beam. The three shapes differ in the width of their flanges. In addition to varied flange widths,
the S-shape flanges are tapered, making them stronger than equivalently sized W beams and
suitable for train rail or monorail beams. The W shape is commonly used for columns. All can be
used for horizontal or vertical members.

3.3: Steel Structure Solved Examples:

(1) (2)

137
(2) (4)

138
Exercise:
For the following draw the projection views

139
 141
DRAW TO A SCALE 1:5
SHEET NO. STEEL CONNECTIONS 1- F. VIEW 2- GIVEN SEC. PLAN
3- SECTIONAL SIDE VIEW ALONG A-A
 141
DRAW TO A SCALE 1:5
SHEET NO. STEEL CONNECTIONS
1- F. VIEW 2- R. S. VIEW 3- PLAN VIEW
 142
DRAW TO A SCALE 1:5
SHEET NO. STEEL CONNECTIONS 1- F. VIEW 2- L. S. VIEW
3- SECTIONAL PLAN ALONG A-A
 143
DRAW TO A SCALE 1:5
SHEET NO. STEEL CONNECTIONS
1- F. VIEW 2- L. S. VIEW 3- PLAN
 144
DRAW TO A SCALE 1:5
SHEET NO. STEEL CONNECTIONS 1- F. VIEW 2- R. S. VIEW
3- SECTIONAL PLAN ALONG A-A
 145
DRAW TO A SCALE 1:5
SHEET NO. STEEL CONNECTIONS 1- F. VIEW 2- L. H. S. VIEW
3- SECTIONAL PLAN ALONG A-A
 Chapter 4
Fasteners

4.1: Screw Threads:

The screw thread is probably the most important single component in engineering. The
application of the screw thread to nuts, bolts, studs, screws, etc., provides us with the ability to
join two or more pieces of material together securely, easily and, most importantly of all, not
permanently.
There are other methods of joining materials together but the most widely used ones – riveting,
welding and (very common these days) using adhesives – are all permanent. It is true that these
methods are cheaper, but when we know that we might have to take the thing apart again we use
the screw thread. Since the screw thread is so important it is well worth while looking at the
whole subject more closely.
International Standards Organisation (ISO) has formulated a complex set of standards to
cover the whole range of engineering components. Their thread, the ISO, is now the international
standard thread. The ISO and unified thread profiles are identical. The unified thread is the
Standard International thread for countries which are still using imperial units.

4.2: Thread Forms:

Unified threads are the most common threads used on threaded fasteners. Fig. 4.1 shows the
profile of a unified thread.

Fig. 4.1: Unified thread form

American national threads, shown in profile in fig. 4.2 are similar to the unified thread but
have a flat root. The sharp-V thread, although not commonly used, is a thread that fits and seals
tightly. It is difficult to manufacture because the sharp crests and roots of the threads are easily
damaged, fig. 4.3.

146
Fig. 4.2: American national thread form Fig. 4.3: Sharp-V thread form

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was established thread specifications
(Metric thread forms) are similar to the unified thread form, fig. 4.4. Whitworth threads are
the original British standard thread forms developed in 1841. These threads have been referred to
as parallel screw threads, fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.4: Metric thread form Fig. 4.5: Whitworth thread form

Square thread forms, shown in fig. 4.6, have a longer pitch than unified threads. Square
threads were developed as threads that would effectively transmit power. Square threads are
difficult to manufacture because of their perpendicular sides. The square thread is generally
replaced by Acme threads.
Acme thread forms are commonly used when rapid traversing movement is a design
requirement. Acme threads are popular on such designs as screw jacks, vise screws, and other
equipment and machinery that require rapid screw action, fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.6: Square thread form Fig. 4.7: Acme thread form

147
 Buttress threads are designed for applications where high stress occurs in one direction along
the thread axis. The buttress thread is commonly used in situations where tubular features are
screwed together and lateral forces are exerted in one direction, fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8: Buttress threads form

4.3: Thread Representations for Drawings:

Three methods of thread representation are in use: detailed, schematic, and simplified. The
simplified thread representation is most commonly used method of drawing thread symbols.
Simplified representations clearly describe threads, and they are easy and quick to draw. They
are also very versatile and can be used in all situations, whereas the other representations cannot
be used in all situations. Fig. 4.9 shows simplified threads representation for both internally and
externally threads. Detailed drawing for threaded hole is presented in fig. 4.10.

Fig. 4.9: Simplified threads representation

148
 Fig. 4.10: Simplified representation of a screw thread in a hole

4.4: Bolts and Nuts:

The term fixed fastener includes a stud or a threaded hole for a bolt or screw relates to an
application in which one of the parts to be assembled has a held in-place fastener. This applies to
all holes of the same size in a pattern in which the same positional tolerance is specified. An
example of a fixed fastener is shown in fig. 4.1a.

(a)

149
 (b) (c)
Fig. 4.11: Detailed drawing for fasteners

Notice in fig. 4.11c, that part A has a clearance hole, and part B is threaded. Part B acts as
part of the fastener, much like a nut. Example: M 14 bolt is used to fasten two parts together,
where part A has a clearance diameter hole of 14.4/14.2 and part B is threaded with metric thread
matched with the diameter of 14 for bolt. The most widespread application of the screw thread
is the nut and bolt showing full details to whenever a nut or bolt is drawn; it is essential that the
first view drawn is the one which shows the regular hexagon. If the across-flats (A/F) dimension
is given, draw a circle with that diameter. Construct a regular hexagon round the circle with a
60° set square. Project the corners of the hexagon onto the side view of the nut and bolt and mark
off the thickness of the nut or bolt head, fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12: A/C (across corner) and A/F (across flats) for chamfered nuts

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 Nuts and bolts are chamfered and, when viewed from the side, this chamfer is seen as radii on
the sides of the nut or bolt. If you ensure that the first view projected from the hexagon is the one
which shows three faces of the nut (the other view shows only two faces), you can draw a radius
equal to D, the diameter of the thread, on the center flat. The intersection of this radius and the
corners of the neighboring flats determine the size of the two smaller radii.

These must start at this intersection, finish at the same height on the next corner and touch the
top of the nut or bolt at the center of the flat. This may be done by trial and error with compasses,
or with radius curves. Remember that the center of the radius lies midway between the sides.
This view is completed by drawing the 30° chamfer which produced the radii. The third view of
the nut or bolt is drawn in a similar fashion. The width and heights are projected from the two
existing views and the radii are found in the same way as shown on the other view.

The length of a bolt is determined simply by the use to which the bolt is to be put. There is a
very large selection of bolt lengths for all diameters. The bolt should not protrude very far past
the nut and so there is no need to thread all of the shank.

Fig, 4.13: Bolts head typed Fig. 4.14: Bolt representation in sectioning

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 Fig. 4.15: Nuts types

Through bolt Fitted bolt Tap bolt stud

Fig. 4.16: Famous fasteners used in drawings

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 Chapter 5
Assembly Drawing

There are not many engineering items that are completely functional by themselves. There
are some even a simple object like a wood chisel has three components and a good pair of
compasses may have 12 component parts. Each part should be drawn and dimensioned
separately and then a drawing is made of all the component parts put together. This is called an
‘assembly drawing’.

The parts must fit together and be held together, either because they interlock or there is
something holding them together. There is always an obvious component to start drawing, and,
while you are drawing that, the rest of the assembly will become apparent as you become more
familiar with the details.

In the previous chapter, we have already seen how to draw a standard nut and bolt used
commonly in assembly drawing to join parts together.

5.1: Lathe Gear Assembly:

The drawings in Fig. 5.1 show a sketch of a -change lever to act as a guide to show how its
parts are fitted together, details of the various parts of the gear-change lever partly finished views
of the gear bracket and lever handle of the lathe gear-change lever.

You are required to do the following:

1- Complete the front view by adding the parts to make the whole assembly.
2- Complete the sectional plan on A – A.
Do not show any hidden detail.

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 Fig.5.1: Lather gear change lever

Fig. 5.2: Solution shows assembly of a lathe gear

154
5.2: Lever Bracket Assembly:
A sketch and views of a lever bracket are given in Fig. 5.3. The pin fits into the hole in the
bracket and is held in position by means of an M18 hexagon nut.
You are required to do the following:
Draw, full size, the following views of the assembled bracket, including the nut:
(a) Front elevation looking in the direction of arrow X
(b) Sectional side view on AA looking in the direction of the arrows
(c) Sectional plan on BB looking in the direction of the arrows.

Fig. 5.3

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5.3: Lever Sub Assembly:
For the parts show in fig. 5.4, you are required to draw the following views of the assembled
lever:
(a) Sectional elevation looking at A-A
(b) Complete plan for assembled lever
(c) Complete side view

Fig. 5.4

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5.4: Plummer Block Bearing Assembly:
Draw to a scale of 2:1 in first angle orthographic projection the following views of the
assembled bearing at fig. 5.5:
(a) Sectional elevation in direction of X. The cutting plane to be vertical and to pass
through AA.
(b) Plan.

Fig. 5.5

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5.5: Small Machine vice Assembly:
Figure 5.6 shows the details of a small machine vice and the key to its assembly. Draw the
following views of the completely assembled vice:
(a) Sectional elevation passing through the axis of the square-headed screw, in the
direction indicated by XX in the key.
(b) Plan projected from the above.
(c) Sectional side view at AA
Either first or third angle methods of projection may be used; the method chosen must be stated
on the drawing.

Fig. 5.6

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 Previous Exams

Mid -Term Exam (1)

(1) for the cast iron bracket shown, draw to a scale full size the following:
(a) Sectional elevation at A-A (b) Sectional side view at B-B
(c) Complete plan view

(2) Draw to a scale full size the isometric for the part shown:

159
 Mid -Term Exam (2)

(1) For the cast iron bracket shown, draw to a scale full size the following:
(a) Sectional elevation at A-A (b) Sectional side view at B-B
(c) Complete plan view

(2) Draw to a scale full size the isometric for the part shown:

161
 Mid -Term Exam (3)

Draw to a full scale the following views:

(a) Sectional elevation at A-A
(b) Sectional plan at B-B
(c) Complete side view

161
 Final Term Exam (1)

Question (1):
For the shown machine part, draw to a scale full size the following:
(1) Sectional elevation at A-A
(2) Sectional side view at B-B
(3) Sectional plan at C-C

Question (2):
Draw to a scale 1:5 the elevation view only (from direction A) for the following steel construction

162
 Final Term Exam (2)

Question (1):
For the given views, get the following:
(a) Sectional elevation at A-A
(b) Sectional plan at B-B
(c) Sectional side view at C-C

163
Question (2):
For the following steel structure:
Redraw the front view and get the complete plan (scale 1:5)

164
 Final Term Exam (3)

Question (1):
For the following drawing:
(1) Sectional elevation at A-A
(2) Sectional side view at B-B
(3) Complete plan

Question (2):
Draw to scale 1:5 the elevation view only (from direction A) for the following steel construction

165
166
References:

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Instruction", 2018 .
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3- Kenneth Morling, "Geometric and engineering drawing", Third Edition
Elsevier Ltd, 2010
4- K. Venkata Reddy, ''Textbook of engineering drawing'' Second Edition
,Aditya Art Printers Hyderabad, 2008
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“Engineering Graphics”, 8th Edition, Pearson, 2004
6- Colin H Simmons , Dennis E Maguire; ''Manual of engineering drawing',
Second edition, Colin H. Simmons and Denis E. Maguire ,2004
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drawing” 10th edition, Prentice Hall, Inc. NJ, (1997).
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Press, 1995.
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12- Boundy, A. W.; “Engineering drawing”, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill, (1990).

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