LIMITATIONS OF FILE PROCESSING SYSTEM

I N F O R M A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T
 INTRODUCTION
In daily life, we come across various needs to store
data. It can be maintaining daily household bills, bank
account details, salary details, payment details,
student information, student reports, books in the
library, etc. How it will be recorded in one place so
that we can get it back when required? It should be
recorded in such a way that
 INTRODUCTION
1. Should be able to get the data at any point in time
latter
2. Should be able to add details to it whenever required
3. Should be able to modify stored information, as
needed
4. Should also be able to delete them
 INTRODUCTION
In the traditional approach, before to computer, all pieces of
information were stored in papers. When we need information, we used
to search through the papers. If we know a particular date or category
of information we are searching for, we go to that particular session in
the papers. When we want to update or delete some data, we search
for it and modify them or strike off them. If the data is limited, then all
these tasks are easy. Imagine library information or information about
a student in school, or a banking system! How do we search for single
required data in papers? It is a never-ending task! Yes, Computers
solved our problems.
 File Processing System
When computers came, all these jobs become easy. But initial
days, these records were stored in the form of files. The way we
stored in files is similar to papers, in the form of flat files – to be
simpler, in notepad. Yes, the pieces of information where all in
the notepads with each field of information separated by
space, tab comma, semicolon, or any other symbol.
 File Processing System

All the files were grouped based on their categories; the file used
to have only related information and each file is named properly.
As we can see in the above sample file has Student information.
Student files for each class were bundled inside different folders to
identify it quickly.
 File Processing System
All the files were grouped based on their categories; the file
used to have only related information and each file is named
properly. As we can see in the above sample file has Student
information. Student files for each class were bundled inside
different folders to identify it quickly.
 File Processing System

Now, if we want to see a specific Student detail from a file,

what do we do? We know which file will have the data, we
open that file and search for his details. Fine, here we see the
files; we can open it and search for it. But imagine we want to
display student details in a UI.
 File Processing System

Now how will we open a file, read or update it? There are
different programs like C, C++, COBOL, etc which help to do
this task. Using these programming languages, we can search for
files, open them, search for the data inside them, and go to a
specific line in the file, add/update/delete specific information.
 Disadvantages of file processing
The file processing system is good when there is only a
limited number of files and data in are very less. As the
data and files in the system grow, handling them
becomes difficult. There are following disadvantages of
file system.
DISADVANTAGES OF
FILE SYSTEM
Data Mapping and Access Data Isolation Concurrent Access

Data Redundancy Security

Data Dependence Integrity

Data inconsistency Atomicity

DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Data Mapping and Access

Although all the related information is grouped and stored in different files, there
is no mapping between any two files. i.e.; any two dependent files are not linked.
Even though Student files and Student_Report files are related, they are two
different files and they are not linked by any means. Hence if we need to display
student details along with his report, we cannot directly pick from those two files.
We have to write a lengthy program to search the Student file first, get all details,
then go Student_Report file and search for his report. When there is a very huge
amount of data, it is always a time-consuming task to search for particular
information from the file system. It is always an inefficient method to search for
the data.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Data Redundancy

There are no methods to validate the insertion of duplicate data in the file
system. Any user can enter any data. The file system does not validate for the
kind of data being entered nor does it validate for the previous existence of the
same data in the same file. Duplicate data in the system is not appreciated as it is
a waste of space and always leads to confusion and mishandling of data. When
there are duplicate data in the file, and if we need to update or delete the record,
we might end up in updating/deleting one of the records, leaving the other
record in the file. Again the file system does not validate this process.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Data Dependence

In the files, data are stored in a specific format, say tab, comma, or semicolon. If
the format of any of the files is changed, then the program for processing this file
needs to be changed. But there would be many programs dependent on this file.
We need to know in advance all the programs which are using this file and
change in the entire place. Missing to change in any one place will fail the whole
application. Similarly, changes in the storage structure, or accessing the data,
affect all the places where this file is being used. We have to change its entire
programs. That is the smallest change in the file affects all the programs and
needs changes in all of them.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Data inconsistency

Imagine Student and Student_Report files have student’s address in it, and there
was a change request for one particular student’s address. The program
searched only the Student file for the address and it updated it correctly. There is
another program that prints the student’s report and mails it to the address
mentioned in the Student_Report file. What happens to the report of a student
whose address is being changed? There is a mismatch in the actual address and
his report is sent to his old address. This mismatch in different copies of the
same data is called data inconsistency. This has occurred here because there is
no proper listing of files which has the same copies of data.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Data Isolation

Imagine we have to generate a single report of a student, who is studying in a

particular class, his study report, his library book details, and hostel information.
All this information is stored in different files. How do we get all these details in
one report? We have to write a program. But before writing the program, the
programmer should find out which files have the information needed, what is
the format of each file, how to search for data in each file, etc. Once all this
analysis is done, he writes a program. If there are 2-3 files involved,
programming would be a bit simple. Imagine if there is a lot many files involved
in it? It would require a lot of effort from the programmer. Since all the data are
isolated from each other in different files, programming becomes difficult.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Security

Each file can be password protected. But what if you have to give access to only a
few records in the file? For example, the user has to be given access to view only
their bank account information in the file. This is very difficult in the file system.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Integrity

If we need to check for certain insertion criteria while entering the data into the
file it is not possible directly. We can do it by writing programs. Say, if we have to
restrict the students above age 18, then it is by means of the program alone.
There is no direct checking facility in the file system. Hence these kinds of
integrity checks are not easy in file systems.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Atomicity

If there is any failure to insert, update, or delete in the file system, there is no
mechanism to switch back to the previous state. Imagine marks for one
particular subject need to be entered into the Report file and then total needs to
be calculated. But after entering the new marks, the file is closed without saving.
That means whole of the required transaction is not performed. Only the totaling
of marks has been done, but the addition of marks not being done. The total
mark calculated is wrong in this case. Atomicity refers to the completion of the
whole transaction or not completing it at all. Partial completion of any
transaction leads to incorrect data in the system.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SYSTEM
Concurrent Access

Accessing the same data from the same file is called concurrent access. In the file
system, concurrent access leads to incorrect data. For example, a student wants
to borrow a book from the library. He searches for the book in the library file and
sees that only one copy is available. At the same time, another student also
wants to borrow the same book and checks that one copy available. The first
student opt for borrow and gets the book. But it is still not updated to zero-copy
in the file and the second student also opt for borrow! But there are no books
available. This is the problem of concurrent access to the file system.
 Properties of data
I N F O R M A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T
PROPERTIES OF A DATA
DATABASE APPROACH
I N F O R M A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T
DATABASE APPROACH
An information system that uses a Database Management System (DBMS) to
manage its information has a particular structure, comprising three components:
Data, DBMS, and Application software. This structure as described below is
referred to as the database approach to information system development.
DATABASE APPROACH
The Database is a shared collection of logically related data, designed to meet the
information needs of an organization. A database is a computer based record
keeping system whose over all purpose is to record and maintains information.
The database is a single, large repository of data, which can be used
simultaneously by many departments and users. Instead of disconnected files
with redundant data, all data items are integrated with a minimum amount of
duplication.
DATABASE APPROACH
The database is no longer owned by one department but is a shared corporate
resource. The database holds not only the organization’s operational data but
also a description of this data. For this reason, a database is also defined as a
self-describing collection of integrated records. The description of the data is
known as the Data Dictionary or Meta Data (the ‘data about data’). It is the self-
describing nature of a database that provides program-data independence.
DATABASE APPROACH
A database implies the separation of physical storage from the use of the data by
an application program to achieve program/data independence. Using a
database system, the user or programmer, or application specialist need not
know the details of how the data are stored and such details are “transparent to
the user”. Changes (or updating) can be made to data without affecting other
components of the system. These changes include, for example, a change in data
format or file structure or relocation from one device to another.
In the DBMS approach, an application program written in some programming
language like Java, Visual Basic.Net, and Developer 2000, etc. uses database
connectivity to access the database stored in the disk with the help of the
operating system’s file management system.
DATABASE APPROACH
The central component of the database approach is the DBMS. This software is
also referred to as the “database engine” or the “back end.” With regard to the
data it manages, it has several responsibilities including the following:

Data Definition: providing a way to define and build the database

Data Manipulation: providing a way to insert and update data in the database
Query Execution: retrieving information from the data in the database
Data Integrity: ensuring that data stored is well-formed
Data Security: enforcing restrictions about who is able to access what data
Provenance: logging capabilities to provide an audit trail for data changes
Multiuser Concurrency: supporting the activities of many users at the same
time
DATABASE APPROACH
As can be seen from the above list, a DBMS is a complex software application.
While all database management systems may not provide all of these features,
these are the general characteristics of today’s DBMSs. Using a database requires
considerable expertise and knowledge about the specific DBMS being used.
Some of the more popular DBMSs today are MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server,
Oracle, PostgreSQL, Microsoft Access, and IBM's DB2.
DATABASE APPROACH
The second component in the database approach is the DATA. Although the
physical location or manner in which the data are stored may be important for
performance reasons, the location of the data does not determine whether or
not a system is developed using the database approach. As long as the DBMS has
access to and can perform its responsibilities in regards to the data, the details of
the data storage are not relevant.
DATABASE APPROACH
The final component of the database approach is the APPLICATION, also called
"front end" software. Application software interacts with the DBMS to provide
information to a user. It may also provide a way for a user to invoke other
functionality of the DBMS. In fact, the DBMS software itself is non-visual, meaning
that the user does not interact directly with the DBMS. Any software that
provides an interface for the user to invoke procedures in the DBMS we will
define as application software.
DATABASE APPROACH
Once the application has determined what the user is trying to accomplish, it
sends a request to the DBMS. The request may be an instruction to change data
or a request for information such as the list of employees who were hired on a
particular date. All relational databases use a standard language to receive and
process requests. The standard language is called Structured Query Language
(SQL).
DATABASE APPROACH
The DBMS receives the request and determines if the operation requested is
allowed for the authenticated user. If the operation is allowed, the DBMS
completes the operation and sends a response to the application. The
application then communicates the information to the user. If the operation is
not authorized for the user or if there is an error in fulfilling the operation, the
DBMS responds with an appropriate message. Again, it is up to the application to
display that to the user. It is a critical feature of the database approach that the
application never bypasses the DBMS to access stored data directly.
DATABASE APPROACH
The Database Approach
 DBMS
DATABAse management
system
WHY USE DBMS ?
To develop software applications In less time.
Data independence and efficient use of data.
For uniform data administration.
For data integrity and security.
For concurrent access to data, and data recovery from crashes.
To use user-friendly declarative query language.
example of DBMS
Airlines: reservations, schedules, etc
Telecom: calls made, customer details, network usage, etc
Universities: registration, results, grades, etc
Sales: products, purchases, customers, etc
Banking: all transactions etc
COmponents of a dbms
DBMS
Users: Users may be of any kind such as
DB administrator, System developer, or
database users.

Database application: Database application

may be Departmental, Personal,
organization's and / or Internal.

DBMS: Software that allows users to create

and manipulate database access,

Database: Collection of logical data as a

single unit.
dbms environment
Here, the hardware in a database environment
means the computers and computer peripherals
that are being used to manage a database, and
the software means the whole thing right from
the operating system (OS) to the application
programs that include database management
software like M.S. Access or SQL Server. Again the
people in a database environment include those
people who administrate and use the system. The
techniques are the rules, concepts, and
instructions given to both the people and the
software along with the data with the group of
facts and information positioned within the
database environment.
 DATABASE MODELS
I N F O R M A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T
DATABASE MODEL
A model is a representation of reality, ‘real world’ objects and events,
associations. It is an abstraction that concentrates on the essential, inherent
aspects an organization and ignores the accidental properties. A data model
represents the organization itself. It should provide the basic concepts and
notations that will allow database designers and end users unambiguously and
accurately to communicate their understanding of the organizational data.

Data Model can be defined as an integrated collection of concepts for describing

and manipulating data, relationships between data, and constraints on the data
in an organization.
COMPONENTS OF 1. STRUCTURE - defines how data is organized & stored (like tables in spreadsheet)

DATABASE MODELS 2. RELATIONSHIP - how pieces of data connect or relate to each other
3. INTERACTIONS - how you can retrieve, add, update, or remove.

A data model comprises three components:

A structural part consists of a set of rules according to which databases can

be constructed.
A manipulative part defines the types of operations that are allowed on the
data (this includes the operations that are used for updating or retrieving
data from the database and for changing the structure of the database).
Possibly a set of integrity rules, ensures that the data is accurate.
BROAD CATEGORIES OF
DATABASE MODELS
The purpose of a data model is to represent data and to make the data
understandable. There have been many data models proposed in the
literature. They fall into three broad categories:

Object-Based Data Models

Physical Data Models

Record Based Data Models

CATEGORIES OF DATABASE MODELS
OBJECT-BASED DATA MODELS

Object-based data models use concepts such as entities, attributes,

and relationships. An entity is a distinct object (a person, place,
concept, and event) in the organization that is to be represented in
the database. An attribute is a property that describes some aspect of
the object that we wish to record, and a relationship is an association
between entities.
CATEGORIES OF DATABASE MODELS
OBJECT-BASED DATA MODELS

Some of the more common types of object-based data models are:

Entity-Relationship
Object Oriented
Semantic
Functional
CATEGORIES OF DATABASE MODELS
OBJECT-BASED DATA MODELS

The Entity-Relationship model has emerged as one of the main

techniques for modeling database design and forms the basis for the
database design methodology. The object-oriented data model extends
the definition of an entity to include, not only the attributes that
describe the state of the object but also the actions that are associated
with the object, that is, its behavior. The object is said to encapsulate
both state and behavior. Entities in semantic systems represent the
equivalent of a record in a relational system or an object in an OO
system but they do not include behavior (methods).
CATEGORIES OF DATABASE MODELS
OBJECT-BASED DATA MODELS

They are abstractions ‘used to represent real-world (e.g. customer) or

conceptual (e.g. bank account) objects. The functional data model is
now almost twenty years old. The original idea was to’ view the
database as a collection of extensionally defined functions and to use a
functional language for querying the database.
CATEGORIES OF DATABASE MODELS
PHYSICAL DATA MODELS

Physical data models describe how data is stored in the computer,

representing information such as record structures, record orders,
and access paths. There are not as many physical data models as
logical data models, the most common one being the Unifying
Model.
CATEGORIES OF DATABASE MODELS
RECORD BASED LOGICAL METHODS

Record-based logical models are used in describing data at the

logical and view levels. In contrast to object-based data models, they
are used to specify the overall logical structure of the database and
to provide a higher-level description of the implementation. Record-
based models are so named because the database is structured in
fixed format records of several types. Each record type defines a
fixed number of fields or attributes, and each field is usually of a
fixed length.
CATEGORIES OF DATABASE MODELS
RECORD-BASED LOGICAL METHODS

The three most widely accepted record-based data models are:

Hierarchical Model
Network Model
Relational Model

The relational model has gained favor over the other two in recent
years. The network and hierarchical models are still used in a large
number of older databases.
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
I N F O R M A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
Data is the lifeblood of any organization, and the management of data in
IT systems remains a critical exercise, particularly at a time when data
privacy regulation is a hot topic.

The role of the Database Administrator (DBA) has likely evolved over
time, given the evolution of data sources, types, and storage options.
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
What is a DBA?

Short for a database

administrator, DBA designs,
implements, administers,
and monitors data
management systems and
ensures design,
consistency, quality, and
security.
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
According to SFIA 8, database administration involves the installing,
configuring, monitoring, maintaining, and improving the performance of
databases and data stores. While design of databases would be part of
solution architecture, the implementation and maintenance of
development and production database environments would be the work
of the DBA.
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
The day-to-day activities that a DBA performs as outlined in ITIL®
Service Operation include:

Creating and maintaining database standards and policies

Supporting database design, creation, and testing activities
Managing the database availability and performance, including
incident and problem management
Administering database objects to achieve optimum utilization
Defining and implementing event triggers that will alert on potential
database performance or integrity issue.
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
The day-to-day activities that a DBA performs as outlined in ITIL®
Service Operation include:

Performing database housekeeping, such as tuning, indexing, etc.

Monitoring usage, transaction volumes, response times, concurrency
levels, etc.
Identifying reporting, and managing database security issues, audit
trails, and forensics
Designing database backup, archiving, and storage strategy
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
What competencies does a DBA require?

At a bare minimum, the DBA will:

Have an IT, computer science, or engineering educational

background
Need to be conversant with structured query language (SQL) and
relevant database technologies (whether proprietary or open source)
Understand coding and service management (to some degree)
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
What competencies does a DBA require?

Relevant database technologies include SQL Server, MySQL, Oracle, IBM

Db2, and MongoDB, among others. Now, this doesn’t mean you have to
be certified in all of them, but a working knowledge of a few of them is
required.
OUTLOOK FOR DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
The DBA role is here to stay when it comes to data administration, but it
is clear that the name might need some tweaking.
The digital age has resulted in huge growth in unstructured data such as
text, images, sensor information, audio, and videos, on account of e-
commerce, IoT, AI, and social media. As a result, the job title ‘database
administrator’ seems to be giving way to ‘data administrator’, to cater
the management of both structured (database) and unstructured (big
data) data sets.
OUTLOOK FOR DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
Since most digital
organizations are no
longer restricted to
transactional data
only, the modern-day
DBA must be
conversant with file,
block, and object
storage solutions.
 DATA PRIVACY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DATABASE ADMINISRATOR
Data protection regulation has become a key focus area for enterprises
around the world. The stringent requirements and hefty fines have
resulted in scrutiny of data management becoming a critical corporate
governance imperative.

The DBA must become conversant with data protection regulation such
as GDPR, and how to implement the relevant security controls to ensure
user/customer privacy rights are respected in business operations.
GDPR - General Data Protection Regulation
-EOF