ECE 522 ‐ Power Systems Analysis II

Spring 2021

Frequency Regulation and Control

Spring 2021
Instructor: Kai Sun

© 2021 Kai Sun 1

 Content

• Modeling the speed governing system of a generator

• Automatic generation control (AGC)
• Under-frequency load shedding (UFLS)

• References:
– Chapter 11.1 of Kundur’s book
– Chapter 12 of Saadat’s book
– Chapter 4 (Frequency Control) of EPRI Tutorial

© 2021 Kai Sun 2

 Generator Control Loops
• For each generator,
– Load Frequency Control (LFC) loop controls the frequency (or real power output)
– Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) loop controls the voltage (or reactive power output)

• The LFC and AVR controllers are set for a

particular steady-state operating condition to
maintain frequency and voltage against small
changes in load demand.

• Cross-coupling between the LFC and AVR loops

is negligible because the excitation-system time
constant is much smaller than the prime
mover/governor time constants

© 2021 Kai Sun 3

 Frequency Control
• The frequency of a system depends on real power balance.
– Changes in real power affect mainly the system frequency.
– Reactive power is less sensitive to changes in frequency and mainly depends
on changes in voltage magnitude.
• As frequency is a common factor throughout the system, a change in real power
at one point is reflected through the system by a change in frequency
• In an interconnected system with two or more independently controlled areas, in
addition to control of frequency, the generation within each area has to be
controlled so as to maintain scheduled power interchange.
• The control of generation and frequency is commonly referred to as Load
Frequency Control (LFC), which involves
– Speed governing system with each generator
– Automatic Generation Control (AGC) for interconnected systems

© 2021 Kai Sun 4

 Frequency Deviations
• Under normal conditions, frequency in a large Interconnected power system (e.g. the Eastern
Interconnection) varies approximately 0.03Hz from the scheduled value
• Under abnormal events, e.g. loss of a large generator unit, frequency experiences larger deviations.

© 2021 Kai Sun 5

 Impact of Abnormal Frequency Deviations

• Prolonged operation at frequencies above or below

60Hz can damage power system equipment.

• Turbine blades of steam turbine generators can be

exposed to only a certain amount of off-frequency
operation over their entire lifetime.

• Steam turbine generators often have under- and

over-frequency relays installed to trip the unit if
operated at off-frequencies for a period.

For example, at 58Hz, a typical steam

turbine can be operated under load for 10
minutes over the lifetime before damage is
likely to occur to the turbine blades.

© 2021 Kai Sun 6

 Speed Governing System (LFC Loop)

P=rT
• Under the rated condition:
r=0=1 pu, Pm=Pe=P0=0T0 =T0=Tm=Te
• Under a small change (r <<0) around the rated condition:
r=1+r pu, Pm-Pe=Pm-Pe =(1+r)(Tm-Te ) ≈ Tm-Te=Tm-Te
© 2021 Kai Sun 7
 Consider both generator and load
• Generator:
d (  r )
2H  Tm  Te Pm  Pe  Pm  Pe
dt
1 d
= r
 0 dt
r , T and P in pu,  in rad, H and t in sec.
2Hsr =Pm-Pe=Pm-PL-Dr
• Load:
(2Hs+D)r =Pm-PL
Pe=PL +Dr 𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑍𝐼𝑃 1 𝐾 𝑓

PL Frequency-insensitive load change (due to ZIP load)

Dr Frequency-sensitive load change (due to the total effect of
external frequency-dependent load and the damping coefficient
of the generator)
Damping constant D (pu) = % change in load per 1% frequency change

© 2021 Kai Sun 8

 Frequency Deviation without LFC
M=2H D PL

0.75 pu -0.01 pu
10 sec
(load varies by 0.75% by 1 % change in of frequency (e.g. a 1MW decrease of 100MW unit)

• For a step change of load by -0.01pu:

• Speed (or frequency) deviation:

0.0133x60=0.8Hz

© 2021 Kai Sun 9

 Relationships between Load, Speed Regulation and Frequency

Governor Speed PL  ss (D  1/ R)

characteristic
• If D  (more frequency-
Slope= -R dependent load), then |f| 
Slope=1/D • If R  (stronger LFC
feedback), then |f| 
Frequency-sensitive
Load Characteristic
D=2
Frequency-insensitive
Load Characteristic

© 2021 Kai Sun 10

 Governor Model

Classic Watt Centrifugal Governing System

Speed changer

Linkage mechanism

Speed governor

Hydraulic Amplifier

A centrifugal governor applied in a 19th century

© 2021 Kai Sun steam engine 11
 Governor Model Pv
Pref

• Without a governor, the generator speed drops significantly r/R r

( 1/D) when load increases
• Speed governor closes the loop of negative feedback control
– For stable operation, The governor reduces but does not
eliminate the speed drop due to load increase.
r/R
– Usually, speed regulation R is 5-6% from zero to full load 𝑟(s)
– Governor output r/R is compared to the change in the
reference power Pref
Steady-state speed characteristics
Pg= Pref  r/R
– The difference Pg is then transformed through the hydraulic
amplifier to the steam valve/gate position command Pv with
time constant g
– Its steady-state speed characteristics tells how the speed drops
as load increases.

© 2021 Kai Sun 12

Turbine Model Pv Pm

• The prime mover, i.e. the source of mechanical power, may

be a hydraulic turbine at water falls, a steam turbine burning
coal and nuclear fuel, or a gas turbine.

• The model for the turbine relates changes in mechanical

power output Pm to changes in gate or valve position PV.


𝐺𝑇 𝑡
 
T is in 0.2-2.0 seconds

© 2021 Kai Sun 13

Load Frequency Control block Diagram

𝑟(s)

𝑟 𝑠 1𝑇𝑠 1 𝑔𝑠

𝑃 𝑠 2𝐻𝑠 𝐷 1 𝑇𝑠 1 𝑔𝑠 1/𝑅

• For a step load change, i.e. 𝑃 𝑠 = 𝑃 /𝑠

𝑠𝑠 lim 𝑠𝑟(s) PL

 ss  The smaller R the better?
D  1/ R
• For n generators supporting the load:

PL Req 
1
 R1 / / R2 / /  / / Rn
ss  1 1 1
D  1/ Req   
R1 R2 Rn
© 2021 Kai Sun 14
 𝑟(s)
Saadat’s Example 12.1

The open-loop transfer function is

Necessary & sufficient condition for stability of a linear system:

All roots of the characteristic equation (i.e. poles of closed-loop transfer
function) have negative real parts (in the left-hand portion of the s-plane)
© 2021 Kai Sun 15
 Routh‐Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• Characteristic equation
ansn+an-1sn-1+…+a1s+a0=0 (an>0)
• Routh table:
s 3 + 7.08s 2 + 10.56 s + 0.8 + K = 0
For i>2, xij=(xi-2,j+1xi-1,1  xi-2,1xi-1,j+1)/xi-1,1
where xij is the element in the i-th row and j-th column

s3 1 10.56
7.08 0.8 + K
s2
73.965- K
s1 0
7.08
s0 0.8 + K 0

• Routh-Hurwitz criterion:
Number of roots of the equation having positive real parts = Number of times • s1 row>0 if K<73.965
of sign changes in the 1st column of the Routh table • s0 row>0 since K>0
• Necessary & sufficient condition for stability of a linear system: • So R=1/K>1/73.965=0.0135
The 1st column has all positive numbers
© 2021 Kai Sun 16
 Root‐Locus Method

zi is the i-th zero and pj is j-th pole

When s=j3.25,
Conclusions (see Saadat’s B2.22 for details): Rmin=1/K=0.0135 (R>0.0135)
• The loci of roots of 1+KG(s)H(s) begins at KG(s)H(s)’s
poles and ends at its zeros as K=0.
• Number of separate loci = Number of poles; root loci must
be symmetrical with respect to the real axis.
• The root locus on the real axis always lies in a section of the
real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros.
• Linear asymptotes of loci are centered at a point (x, 0) on
the real axis with angle  with respect to the real axis.
where x=[ j=1…n( pj)  i=1…m( zi) ]/(n  m)
=(2k+1)/(n m) k=0, 1, …, (nm1)

© 2021 Kai Sun 17

 • Closed-loop transfer function with R=0.05pu (>0.0135):
Dwr (s) (1+0.2s)(1+0.5s) 0.1s 2
+ 0.7 s + 1 Without LFC (Open-loop, R=)
= = 3
-DPL (s) (10s +0.8)(1+0.2s)(1+0.5s) +1/ 0.05 s + 7.08s 2 + 10.56s + 20.8

• Steady-state frequency deviation due to a step input:

1 1
Dwss = lim sDwr (s) =-DPL =-0.2´ =-0.0096 p.u.
s0 D +1/ R 20.8
Df = -0.0096 ´ 60 = 0.576 Hz
R=0.135

Note: Frequency does not go back to 60Hz

(there is a frequency offset)

R=0.0135

© 2021 Kai Sun 18

 Modeling of a realistic turbine‐governor system

© 2021 Kai Sun 19

IEEE Type 1 Speed‐Governor Model: IEEEG1/IEEEG1_GE
Governor Turbine

High
pressure

Low
pressure

=1/R

© 2021 Kai Sun 20

 Composite Governor and Load Characteristic

𝑓

PD

f  PL R

Under steady-state conditions (s=0):

PL (pu)
f (pu)  ss (pu) 
D  1/ R
ss
Pm    PL  Dss  PL  PD
R
Multiple generators:
PL (pu)
ss  Pmi Ri 
1
D f 
PL
i Ri D
© 2021 Kai Sun 21
 Saadat’s Example 12.2
PL (pu)
ss  Pmi Ri 
1
D
i Ri

Note: Two generators use different MVA

bases. Select 1000MVA as the common
MVA base. Change the per unit value on
the machine base (B1) to a new per unit
value on the common base (B2).

B1 Dwss Dwss S Dwss SB1 B2 R B1 R B 2 B1 B2

R = B1
=
B2S
= B1 ´ =
SB2 -DPmB2 SB2
´ R = P = P ´SB1 = P ´SB2
-DPm -DP ´ B2
m S B1 SB 2
SB1
1000 1000 90
R1 = (0.06) = 0.1 pu R2 = (0.04) = 0.08 pu DPL = = 0.09 pu
600 500 1000

© 2021 Kai Sun 22

 (a) D=0 (b) D=1.5 (ignoring its change due to load increase)
-DPL -0.09 -DPL -0.09
Dwss = = =-0.004 pu Dwss = = = -0.00375 pu
1 1 10 +12.5 1 1 10 + 12.5 + 1.5
+ + +D
R1 R2 R1 R2
Df = -0.004 ´ 60 = -0.24 Hz Df = -0.00375´ 60 = -0.225 Hz

f = f 0 + Df = 60 - 0.24 = 59.76 Hz f = f 0 + Df = 60 - 0.225 = 59.775 Hz

Dw -0.004 Dwss -0.00375

DPm1 =- ss =- = 0.04 pu = 40 MW DPm1 = - =- = 0.0375 pu=37.5MW
R1 0.1 R1 0.1

Dwss -0.004 Dwss -0.00375

DPm2 =- =- = 0.05 pu = 50 MW DPm 2 = - =- = 0.0469 pu=46.9MW
R2 0.08 R2 0.08

Unit supplies 537.5MW and unit 2 supplies 446.9MW

Unit 1 supplies 540MW and unit 2 at the new operating frequency of 59.775Hz. The total
supplies 450MW at the new operating change in generation is 84.4MW, i.e. 5.6MW less than
frequency of 59.76Hz.
90MW load change, because of the change in load
due to frequency drop.

Dwss ⋅ D = -0.00375´1.5 = -0.005625 pu = -5.625MW

© 2021 Kai Sun 23

 For D=0 (frequency-sensitive load is ignored):

Dwss
DPm1 =-
R1 D Pm 1 R
= 2
D Pm 2 R1
Dwss
DPm2 =-
R2

Adjusting R1 and R2 may

D=1.5
change generation dispatch
between Units 1 and 2
D=0

© 2021 Kai Sun 24

 Composite Frequency Response
Characteristic (FRC)
• LFC analysis for a multi-generator system:
– Assume coherent response of all generators to changes in
system load
– Consider an equivalent generator representing all generators

1 PL
Meq =2Heq= 2(H1+ … +Hn) Req  ss 
1 / R1    1 / Rn D  1/ Req
• Frequency response characteristic (FRC), also called Frequency bias factor 
=D+1/Req =|PL/f | (Unit: MW/0.1 Hz)
• FRC tells how much MW change may cause a 0.1Hz frequency derivation, and it can
be developed for either the whole system or any section of the system.
• FRC depends on:
– The governor droop settings (Req) of all on-line units in the system.
– The frequency response (D) of the connected load in the system.
– The condition of the system (includes current generator output levels, transmission
line outages, voltage levels, etc.) when the frequency deviation occurs.
© 2021 Kai Sun 25
 FRCs of Different Interconnections

=

=

=

© 2021 Kai Sun 26

LFC for a Two‐Area System
• Generators in each area are coherent, i.e. closely coupled internally
• Two areas are represented by two equivalent generators (modeled by a voltage
source behind an equivalent reactance) interconnected by a lossless tie line

E1 E2 X T  X 1  X tie  X 2
P12 = sin d12
XT 12  1   2

dP12
DP12 » Dd12 = Ps Dd12 = Ps (Dd1 -Dd2 )
d d12 d120

Ps
= (Dwr1 -Dwr 2 )
s P12
P12,max
E1 E2 Slope=Ps
dP
Ps = 12 = cos Dd120
d d12 d120
XT P12,0

Ps is the synchronizing power coefficient 12

12,0

© 2021 Kai Sun 27

LFC for a Two‐Area System: with only the Primary Loop
• Generators in each area are coherent and represented by one
equivalent generator
• Consider a load change PL1 in area 1.
• Both areas have the same steady-state frequency deviation

Dw = Dw1 = Dw2
Ps
DPm1 -DP12 -DPL1 = Dw D1 DP12 = (Dw1 -Dw2 )
s
DPm 2 + DP12 - 0 = Dw D2
DP12 = Dw D2 -DPm 2

• Changes in mechanical powers determined by governor speed =0

characteristics:
DPm1 = -Dw / R1 DPm 2 = -Dw / R2
• Solve  and P12
-DPL1 -DPL1 DP12 = Dw D2 -DPm 2 = Dw ( D2 + 1/ R2 ) = Dw ⋅ b2
Dw = = b2
1 1
( + D1 ) + ( + D2 ) b1 + b2 =
b1 + b2
(-DPL1 )
R1 R2
© 2021 Kai Sun 28
© 2021 Kai Sun 29
 LFC for more than two areas Area i
• Given load change PLi, find the net export change Pi
Pmi
PDi=Di
DPmi = DPi + DPLi + DPDi Pi

DPmi = -Dw / Ri DPDi = Di Dw PLi

æ -å DPLj
ç 1 ö÷
DPi = -DPLi - çç Di + ÷÷ Dw = -DPLi - bi Dw DPi = -DPLi - bi Dw = -DPLi - bi
j

è R ÷ø i åb j
j

From the balance in active power:

-DPLi å b j + bi å DPLj
æ ö÷
ç
0 = å DPi = -å DPLi - çå bi ÷÷ Dw DPi =
j j

i i
çè i ÷ø åb
j
j

-å DPLi -å DPLi
= i Example 12.4: PL10 and PL2=0
Dw = i
æ ö
å bii
çç D + 1 ÷÷
åi çè i R ÷÷ø DP12 = DP1 =
-DPL1 (b1 + b2 ) + b1 (DPL1 + 0)
b1 + b2
i

b2
= (-DPL1 )
© 2021 Kai Sun b1 + b2 30
 Limitations of Governor Frequency Control
• Governors do not recover frequency back to the scheduled value (60Hz) due to the required % droop
characteristic.
• Governor control does not adequately consider the cost of power production so control with governors
alone is usually not the most economical alternative.
• Governor control is intended as a primary means of frequency control and is not suited to fine adjustment
of the interconnected system frequency.
• Other limitations of a governor (see Sec. 4.3 in EPRI Tutorial)
– Spinning Reserve is not considered;
– Has a dead-band, typically 60Hz  0.03-0.04 Hz , in which it stops functioning;
– Depends on the type of generation unit (Hydro: very responsive; Combustion turbine: may or may not be
responsive; Steam: varies depending on the type);
– May be blocked: a generator operator can intentionally prevent a unit from responding to a frequency disturbance.
• From studies on EI and WECC in 2011-2013, 70-80% units are modeled with governors but only 30-50%
of units actually have governor responses (governors of the others are either turned off or inactive due to
dead-bands).

© 2021 Kai Sun 31

 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

• Adding supplementary control on load reference set-points

of selected generators
− Controlling prime-mover power to match load variations
− As system load is continually changing, it is necessary to
change the output of generators automatically

• Primary objective: LFC

– Regulating frequency to the specified nominal value, e.g. 60Hz, and maintaining the interchange power between
control areas at the scheduled values by adjusting the output of selected generators
• Secondary objective: Generation Dispatch
– Distributing the required change in generation among generators to minimize operation costs.

• During large disturbances and emergencies, AGC is bypassed and other emergency controls are applied.

© 2021 Kai Sun 32

 AGC for an Isolated Power System
• An integral controller is added with gain KI

Dwr (s) s(1+ t g s)(1+ tT s)

𝑟(s) =
-DPL (s) s(2Hs + D)(1+ t g s)(1+ tT s) + KI + s / R

• Example 12.3: Applied to the system in Example 12.1 with KI=7

𝑟(s)

© 2021 Kai Sun 33

 AGC with Frequency Bias Tie‐Line Control
• The objective is to restore generation-load balance in each area
• A simple control strategy:
– Keep frequency approximately at the nominal value (60Hz)
– Maintain the tie-line flow at about schedule
– Each area should absorb its own load changes
• Area Control Error (ACE): supplementary control signal added to the primary LFC through an
integral controller
n
ACEi = å DPij + BiDw
j =1

– Bi: frequency bias factor (may or may not equal i)

– Any combination of ACEs containing Pij and  will result in steady-state restoration of the
tie line flow and frequency deviation (the integral control action reduces each ACEi to 0)
– What composition of ACE signals should be selected is more important from dynamic
performance considerations.
– In practice, only the selected units participating in AGC receive and respond to ACE signals

© 2021 Kai Sun 34

Comparing different Bi’s in ACE signals

• Consider a sudden load increase PL1 in Area 1:

1) Bi=ki=i=D+1/Ri Pref1

b2 -DPL1
ACE1 = DP12 + b1Dw = (-DPL1 ) + b1 = -DPL1
b1 + b2 b1 + b2
b2 -DPL1 Pref2
ACE 2 = -DP12 + b2Dw = - (-DPL1 ) + b2 =0
b1 + b2 b1 + b2

k=1: load change is taken care of locally =0

2) B1=k1, B2=k2 Coefficient of 𝚫𝑃 (1=2=20)

b2 - D PL 1 k b1 + b 2
ACE 1 = D P12 + k b1D w = (- D PL 1 ) + k b1 = - D PL 1 k=2 k=1 k=1/2
b1 + b 2 b1 + b 2 b1 + b 2
b2 -DPL1 (k -1)b2 1.5 1 0.75
ACE 2 = -DP12 + k b2Dw = - (-DPL1 ) + k b2 = -DPL1
b1 + b2 b1 + b2 b1 + b2 0.5 0 -0.5
k>1: both generators are more active in regulating frequency
© 2021 Kai Sun 35
 Coefficient of 𝚫𝑃 (1=2=20)
k=2 k=1 k=1/2
1.5 1 0.75
0.5 0 -0.5
Bi=2i Bi=i=D+1/Ri Bi=i/2

1~0 1~0 1~0

2~0 2~0
2~0

Pm1>0 Pm1>0 Pm1>0

Pm2~0 Pm2~0 Pm2~0

P12~0 P12~0 P12~0

© 2021 Kai Sun 36
 AGC for more than two areas
• By means of ACEs, the frequency bias tie-line control scheme schedules the net import/export for
each area, i.e. the algebraic sum of power flows on all the tie lines from that area to the others

© 2021 Kai Sun 37

 NERC Balancing Authority
• The control center is the headquarters of the BA, where the AGC computer system is typically located and all the
data collected by the AGC system are processed.
• Based on the gathered data, the AGC signals are transmitted from the control center to the various generators
currently involved in supplementary control to tell the generators what generation levels (set-points) to hold.
• It is unnecessary for the AGC system to regulate outputs of all generators in a BA. Most BAs have policies
requiring that as many units as needed are under control and able to respond to the BA’s continual load changes.
Those units that receive and respond to AGC signals are called regulating units. Their number vary from a few for
a small BA to 40-50 for the largest BA

© 2021 Kai Sun 38

 Influences from generation reserves
• Sufficient or insufficient spinning reserve
– Normal conditions: each area has sufficient generation
reserve to carry out its supplementary control (AGC)
obligations to eliminate the ACE
– Abnormal conditions: one or more areas cannot fully
eliminate the ACE due to insufficient generation reserve;
Pref
thus, there will be changes in frequency and tie-line flows
(under both supplementary control and primary control)
• Operating reserve resources
– Spinning reserve: unloaded generating capacity (Pref,maxPref)
or some interruptible load controlled automatically
– Non-spinning reserve: not currently connected to the system
but can be available within a specific time period, e.g. 15
minutes. Examples are such as combustion turbines while
cold standby and some interruptible load.
• Each BA shall carry enough operating reserves.
© 2021 Kai Sun 39
 Influences from generation reserves (cont’d)
• In an interconnect system, all generators with governors may
respond to a generation/load change due to f/R0 or Pref0

• Under a sudden load increase or generation loss, only the

generators with spinning reserves can quickly increase their
outputs up to their maximum output limits (by either AGC or
governors) Pref
– “Spinning reserves consist of unloaded generating capacity
that is synchronized to the power system. A governor
cannot increase generation in a unit unless that unit is
carrying spinning reserves. An AGC system cannot
increase a unit’s MW output unless that unit is carrying
spinning reserves.” from EPRI tutorial Sec. 4.4.2.

• Under a load decrease, all generators may reduce their

outputs as long as higher than their minimum output limits.

© 2021 Kai Sun 40

 Kundur’s Example 11.3
Spinning reserve:
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz

ì
ï
ï= 0 with AGC and sufficient reserve
ACE i = Bi Df + DPi-others í
ï
î¹ 0 otherwise
ï

Without AGC (supplementary control) or reserve:

1 1
-å i DPL ,i = (å i + å i Di ) ´Df =( + D ) ´Df
Ri R

DPGi -DPLi = Di Df + DPi-others

Capacity of all online
Df
DPGi = - generators (including
Ri spinning reserve)

1 1 Pgen capacity (MW)

(MW/Hz) = (p.u.) ´
Ri Ri 60(Hz)
PL ,i (MW)
Di (MW/Hz) = Di (p.u.)´
© 2021 Kai Sun
60(Hz) 41
 Spinning reserve: 1000
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 1,000MW load

1 1 Pgen capacity (MW) PL ,i (MW)

(MW/Hz) = (p.u.)´ Di (MW/Hz) = Di (p.u.)´
Ri Ri 60(Hz) 60(Hz)

Online generators with

active governor control

© 2021 Kai Sun 42

 Spinning reserve: 1000
322.56 Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 1,000MW load

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 Spinning reserve: 1000
1000 Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 1,000MW load

ì
ï= 0 with AGC and sufficient reserve
ACE i = Bi Df + DPi-others ï
í
ï
î¹ 0 otherwise
ï

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 Spinning reserve: 1000
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW ?
1000
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 500MW
generation that carry part ì
ï= 0 with AGC and sufficient reserve
of spinning reserve ACE i = Bi Df + DPi-others ï
í
ï
î¹ 0 otherwise
ï

(Some spinning reserve is lost.)

D PRsrv ,i PRsrv ,i
=
D PG ,i PG ,i

833.33500=333.33MW
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 Spinning reserve: 1000
1,937.50 Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 2,000MW
generation that do not ìï= 0 with AGC and sufficient reserve
carry spinning reserve ACE i = Bi Df + DPi-others ïí
ïïî¹ 0 otherwise

0

Df
-DPLi = Di Df + + DPi-others
Ri

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 Spinning reserve:
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz X
B2=500MW/0.1Hz

ìï= 0 with AGC and sufficient reserve

ACE i = Bi Df + DPi-others ïí
ïïî¹ 0 otherwise

© 2021 Kai Sun 47

 Spinning reserve:
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz X
B2=500MW/0.1Hz

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Frequency response following the loss of a generator DPm or -DPL

1 2H
K= , T=
D D

DPm -
Dt
Df = (1- e 2 H )
D

df DPm - 2DtH
(Hz/sec) = e ´ 60
dt t =0 2H t =0

DPm
= ´ 60 (Hz / sec)
2H
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 Underfrequency Load Shedding (UFLS)

• In many situations, a frequency decline may

lead to tripping of steam turbine generators
by underfrequency protective relays, thus
aggravating the situation further.
• UFLS is a protection program that
automatically trips selected customer loads
once frequency falls below a specific value.
• The intent of UFLS is not to recover the
frequency to 60 Hz but rather to arrest or • A typical UFLS setting for a North American
stop the frequency decline. Once UFLS has utility may include three steps conducted by
operated, manual intervention by the system under‐frequency relays, e.g.,
operators is likely required to restore the 1. shedding 10% load at 59.3 HZ
system frequency to a healthy state. 2. shedding 10% additional load at 59.0 HZ
3. shedding 10% more at 58.7Hz
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 North American Industry Practices in Frequency Control

References
• “Balancing and Frequency Control,” NERC resources Subcommittee, January 26, 2011
http://www.nerc.com/docs/oc/rs/NERC%20Balancing%20and%20Frequency%20Control%20040520111.pdf

• “Generation Control” Interconnection Training Program, 2010

http://www.pjm.com/~/media/training/nerc-certifications/gc-gencontrol.ashx

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 Hierarchical Load balancing and Frequency control

Source: “Balancing and Frequency Control,” NERC resources Subcommittee, Jan 26, 2011

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 Time Control and Time Error Correction
• Even with AGC, the average frequency over time of one interconnection usually is not exactly 60 Hz
because of occasional errors in tie-line meters caused by transducer inaccuracy, hardware/software problems
with SCADA, or communications errors.
• Each Interconnection designates one Reliability Coordinator to monitor and calculate frequency/time error
and request time error corrections so as to maintain the long-term average frequency at 60Hz. For example,
MISO (Midcontinent Independent System Operator) is the Time Monitor for EI.
• The Time Monitor compares a clock using Interconnection frequency as a reference against “official time”
provided by the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology).
• For example, if frequency=60.002Hz,
– The clock using Interconnection frequency will gain a Time Error of 1.2 seconds in a 10 hour interval:
(60.002 Hz-60.000 Hz)/60 Hz  10 hrs  3600 s/hr = 1.2 s
– If the Time Error accumulates to a pre-determined value (e.g., +10 seconds in the EI), the Time Monitor
will send notices for all BAs to offset their scheduled frequency by -0.02Hz (i.e. 59.98Hz).
– This offset, known as Time Error Correction, will be maintained until Time Error has decreased below
the termination threshold (i.e. +6 s in the EI).

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