K J Somaiya Institute of Technology

Subject: Computer Network Design

Academic Year: 2024-25 (Even Sem)
SY-IV
Question Bank for Test 1
On successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:

1. Describe the functionalities of each layer of the models and compare the models.
2. Categorize the types of transmission media and explain data link layer concepts, design
issues and protocols.
3. Analyze the routing protocols and assign IP address to networks.

Q.No Question

Module_1

1 Explain the various connecting devices used in computer networks.

Access Point

An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like smartphones and laptops, to
connect to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless devices communicate with the
internet or other devices on the network. Access points are used to extend the range of a network or provide
Wi-Fi in areas that do not have it. They are commonly found in homes, offices, and public places to provide
wireless internet access.

Modems

Modems is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to convert digital signal
into analog signal of different frequencies and transmits these signal to a modem at the receiving location.
These converted signals can be transmitted over the cable systems, telephone lines, and other
communication mediums. A modem is also used to convert analog signal back into digital signal. Modems
are generally used to access internet by customers of an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Firewalls

A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data between your computer or
network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking unauthorized access while allowing trusted data to
pass through. Firewalls help protect your network from hackers, viruses, and other online threats by filtering
traffic based on security rules. Firewalls can be physical devices (hardware), programs (software), or even
cloud-based services, which can be offered as SaaS, through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.
Repeater

A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can
be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate
it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.

Hub

A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example,
the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are
sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub
remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

Bridge

A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering
content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two
LANs working on the same protocol. It typically connects multiple network segments and each port is
connected to different segment. A bridge is not strictly limited to two ports, it can have multiple ports to
connect and manage multiple network segments. Modern multi-port bridges are often called Layer 2
switches because they perform similar

Switch

A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large number of ports
imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error
checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have
errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.

Router

A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a
Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating
routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the
broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Gateway

A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon different
networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer
it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
 Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.

Brouter

It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and router. It can
work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets
across networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

NIC

NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the network. It is
installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a
connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router or
modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and data link layers of
the network model.

2 Compare routers and switches.

3 Write a short note on networking devices like hubs, bridges, switches, and routers.

Refer answer 1

4 Explain LAN, WAN, MAN, PAN Computer network.

Local Area Network(LAN)

 A Local Area Network (LAN) covers a small distance and a small number of computers
 A LAN often connects the machines in a single room or building
 Data transferred in High speed which ranges from 100 Mbps to gigabit for system development and
have a low implementation cost.
 Upper limit: 10 km ; Lower limit: 1 km
  Twisted pair cable or Co-axial cable connects the plug in cards to form a network

Merits:
 Cost reductions through sharing of information and databases, resources and network services.
 Increased information exchange between different departments in an organization, or between
individuals.
 The trend to automate communication and manufacturing process.

Demerits:
 Special security measures are needed to stop users from using programs and data that they should not
have access to;
 Networks are difficult to set up and need to be maintained by
 skilled technicians.
 If the file server develops a serious fault, all the users are affected, rather than just one user in the case
of a stand-alone machine.

Wide-area network (WAN)

 A network that connects two or more local-area networks over a potentially large geographic distance
 Often one particular node on a LAN is set up to serve as a gateway to handle all communication going
between that LAN and other networks.
 Communication between networks is called internetworking
 The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the ultimate wide-area network, spanning the entire
globe
 A Wide Area Network (WAN) connects two or more LANs, often over long distance.
 A WAN often connects different groups in different countries.
 Range: Beyond 100 km.

Metropolitian Area Network (MAN)

 The communication infrastructures that have been developed in and around large cities.
 The metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to extend over an entire city.
 It may be a single network such as cable television network available in many cities.
 Range: Within 100 km (a city).

5 Compare LAN, WAN, MAN, PAN Computer network.

6 Explain OSI model in detail with a neat diagram and function of each layer.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

 Model is a set of rules that explains how different computer systems communicate over a network.
 OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
 The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This
layered approach makes it easier for different devices and technologies to work together.
 OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI
Model is widely used as a reference to understand how network systems function.

Function of Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per
second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus topology , star topology , or mesh topology .
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex .

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of
bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to
the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses ( MAC
addresses ) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
  Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-
layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks
the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
 Services Provided by Transport Layer:
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization
points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-
duplex or full-duplex.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted
data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Functions of the Application Layer

 The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

7 Describe the function of the Data link layer and Transport layer.
Refer answer 6
8 Explain TCP/IP model with a neat diagram and explain its function.

TCP/IP
 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It's a set of rules that allows
computers to communicate with each other over a network, like the internet.
 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of communication
protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP is also used as a communications
protocol in a private computer network -- an intranet or extranet.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer

Network Access Layer

 It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating
the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on
the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
 The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access layer. Error
prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and
Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

Internet or Network Layer

 The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define
the Internet.
 The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another across a
network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device
and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
 This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible
for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are
as follows:
1. IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the
destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and
IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and
is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
3. ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from
a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse
ARP.

Transport Layer

 The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing
packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred
to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP)
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected
by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather
than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte
order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other transport layer protocol.
Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport
little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections

Application Layer

 This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to
manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a
combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs
to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH:SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason
 SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure
session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to
one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following
situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer
reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s
out of sync.

Functions of TCP/IP Model

 Interoperability : The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers and networks to communicate
with each other, promoting compatibility and cooperation among diverse systems.
 Scalability : TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small and large networks, from local
area networks (LANs) to wide area networks (WANs) like the internet.
 Standardization : It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring that different devices and
software can work together without compatibility issues.
 Flexibility : The model supports various routing protocols, data types, and communication methods,
making it adaptable to different networking needs.
 Reliability : TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission features that ensure reliable data
transfer, even over long distances and through various network conditions.

9 State the difference between OSI and TCP/IP model.

10 Explain the protocol layering in Computer Network.

 Example of protocol layering:
OSI Model: This widely used model divides network communication into seven layers, including the
physical layer (managing electrical signals), data link layer (error detection), network layer (routing),
transport layer (reliable data delivery), session layer (conversation management), presentation layer (data
formatting), and application layer (user interaction)

Module_2

1 Explain the various physical media with the help of neat diagrams.

1. Guided (Wired) Transmission Media

Guided media use cables to transmit data signals.

a) Twisted Pair Cable

  Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together.
 Reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk.
 Used in LANs, telephone lines, and DSL connections.

Types:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) – Common in Ethernet networks, cost-effective but less resistant
to interference.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) – Has additional shielding for better protection against interference.
b) Coaxial Cable

 Contains a central copper conductor, surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an
outer insulating cover.
 Provides better shielding than twisted pair cables.
 Used for cable TV, broadband internet, and CCTV networks.

c) Fiber Optic Cable

 Uses light signals instead of electrical signals for data transmission.

 Consists of a glass or plastic core surrounded by cladding, buffer coating, and an outer protective
layer.
 Extremely fast, immune to EMI, and supports long-distance communication.
 Used in internet backbones, undersea cables, and high-speed networks.
2. Unguided (Wireless) Transmission Media
Wireless media use electromagnetic waves to transmit data.

a) Radio Waves

 Used for Wi-Fi, FM radio, mobile networks, and Bluetooth.

 Works over long distances but can be affected by interference.

b) Microwaves

 Used in satellite communication, telecommunication links, and radar systems.

 Requires line-of-sight communication between towers or satellites.

c) Infrared (IR)

 Used for remote controls, short-range data transfer (e.g., TV remotes, IR sensors).
 Works only over short distances and requires a direct line of sight.
2 Compare the guided and unguided media.
3 Explain what the switching technique is.

1. A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates the process of switching i.e.,
incoming data packets and transferring them to their destination.
2. A switch works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
3. A switch primarily handles the incoming data packets from a source computer or network and decides
the appropriate port through which the data packets will reach their target computer or network.
4. A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the help of its
destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address.
5. A switch does this effectively by maintaining a switching table, (also known as forwarding table).
6. A network switch is more efficient than a network Hub or repeater because it maintains a switching
table, which simplifies its task and reduces congestion on a network, which effectively improves the
performance of the network.

Types of Switching
There are three types of switching methods:
1. Message Switching
2. Circuit Switching
3. Packet Switching
Datagram Packet Switching
Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
Message Switching:
This is an older switching technique that has become obsolete.
In message switching technique, the entire data block/message is forwarded across the
entire network thus, making it highly inefficient.

Circuit Switching:

 In this type of switching, a connection is established between the source and destination beforehand.
 This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until the data is transferred
completely.
 This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending data to the entire
network, instead of its destination only.
 A circuit-switched network is one of the simplest data communication methods in which a dedicated
path is established between the sending and receiving device. In this physical links connect via a set of
switches.

Packet Switching:

 This technique requires the data to be broken down into smaller components, data frames, or packets.
 These data frames are then transferred to their destinations according to the available resources in the
network at a particular time.
 This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet.
 Here, each data frame contains additional information about the destination and other information
required for proper transfer through network components.
  In the Packet switching Network, the message is divide into packets.
 Each packet contains a header which includes the source address, destination address, and control
information.

Following figure displays the working of packet switched network.

Datagram Packet Switching:

 In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is taken as an individual entity and thus, they are
processed separately.
 Here, no connection is established before data transmission occurs.
 Although this approach provides flexibility in data transfer, it may cause a loss of data frames or late
delivery of the data frames.

Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching:

 In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a logical connection between the source and destination is made
before transmitting any data.
 These logical connections are called virtual circuits.
 Each data frame follows these logical paths and provides a reliable way of transmitting data with less
chance of data loss.

4 Explain Circuit-Switched Networks technique in detail.

Virtual Circuits
 It is connection-oriented, meaning that there is a reservation of resources like buffers, CPU, bandwidth,
etc. for the time in which the newly set VC is going to be used by a data transfer session.
 The first sent packet reserves resources at each server along the path. Subsequent packets will follow the
same path as the first sent packet for the connection time.
 Since all the packets are going to follow the same path, a global header is required. Only the first packet
of the connection requires a global header, the remaining packets generally don’t require global headers.
  Since all packets follow a specific path, packets are received in order at the destination.
 Virtual Circuit Switching ensures that all packets successfully reach the Destination. No packet will be
discarded due to the unavailability of resources.
 From the above points, it can be concluded that Virtual Circuits are a highly reliable method of data
transfer.
 The issue with virtual circuits is that each time a new connection is set up, resources and extra
information have to be reserved at every router along the path, which becomes problematic if many
clients are trying to reserve a router’s resources simultaneously.
 It is used by the ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Network, specifically for Telephone calls.

Benefits of Virtual Circuit

 The recipient receives the sender’s packets in the same order as they were sent.
 A secure network link is called a virtual circuit.
 Overhead is not required for any packet.
 A single global packet overhead is used in a virtual circuit.

Drawbacks of Virtual Circuits

 The cost of implementing a virtual circuit is high.
 It provides only services based on connections.
 In order to transmit, a new link needs to be created permanently.

5 Explain packet switching technique and its type in detail( Datagram and Virtual circuit switch technique).

Packet Switching:

 This technique requires the data to be broken down into smaller components, data frames, or packets.
 These data frames are then transferred to their destinations according to the available resources in the
network at a particular time.
 This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet.
 Here, each data frame contains additional information about the destination and other information
required for proper transfer through network components.
 In the Packet switching Network, the message is divide into packets.
 Each packet contains a header which includes the source address, destination address, and control
information.

Following figure displays the working of packet switched network.

 Datagram Packet Switching:

 In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is taken as an individual entity and thus, they are
processed separately.
 Here, no connection is established before data transmission occurs.
 Although this approach provides flexibility in data transfer, it may cause a loss of data frames or late
delivery of the data frames.

Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching:

 In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a logical connection between the source and destination is made
before transmitting any data.
 These logical connections are called virtual circuits.
 Each data frame follows these logical paths and provides a reliable way of transmitting data with less
chance of data loss.

6 State the difference between Datagram and Virtual circuit switch technique.
7 List down the DLL Design Issues and explain it

 DLL is the second layer after the physical layer. The data link layer is responsible for maintaining the
data link between two hosts or nodes.
 Before going through the design issues in the data link layer. Some of its sub-layers and their functions
are as following below.
 The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers :
1. Logical Link Control Sub-layer (LLC) –
Provides the logic for the data link, Thus it controls the synchronization, flow control, and error
checking functions of the data link layer. Functions are –
i. Error Recovery.
ii. It performs the flow control operations.
iii. User addressing.

2. Media Access Control Sub-layer (MAC) –

It is the second sub-layer of data-link layer. It controls the flow and multiplexing for transmission medium.
Transmission of data packets is controlled by this layer. This layer is responsible for sending the data over
 the network interface card.
Functions are –
i. To perform the control of access to media.
ii. It performs the unique addressing to stations directly connected to LAN.
iii. Detection of errors.

8 What are the different techniques in Error Detection and Correction

Error Detection and Correction Techniques

Error detection and correction techniques are used in networking to identify and correct errors that occur
during data transmission. These errors can be caused by noise, interference, or hardware faults.

1. Error Detection Techniques

Error detection ensures that errors are recognized, but it does not correct them.

a) Parity Check (Parity Bit)

 A single-bit error detection method that adds an extra parity bit to data.
 Types:
o Even Parity: The total number of 1s (including the parity bit) must be even.
o Odd Parity: The total number of 1s must be odd.
 Limitation: Cannot detect multiple-bit errors.

Example:

Data: 1010 (Even Parity) → Sent as 10100

If received as 10110, an error is detected.

b) Checksum

 A simple arithmetic method used to detect errors.

 The sender adds all data bytes, computes the checksum, and sends it along with the data.
 The receiver re-computes the checksum; if it doesn’t match, an error is detected.
 Used in TCP/IP protocols.

c) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 A more advanced and reliable method for error detection.

  Data is treated as a large binary number and divided by a predefined polynomial divisor.
 The remainder is called the CRC code, which is sent along with the data.
 The receiver divides the received message; if the remainder is not zero, an error is detected.
 Used in Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and storage devices.

Example:

If the data 101101 is transmitted with CRC 1101, the receiver performs the same division to check for errors.

2. Error Correction Techniques

Error correction techniques help in detecting and fixing errors without needing retransmission.

a) Hamming Code

 A technique that adds redundant bits to detect and correct single-bit errors.
 Redundant bits are placed at positions 2^n (1, 2, 4, 8, etc.).
 Can detect two-bit errors and correct one-bit errors.
 Used in RAM, satellite communication, and error-prone networks.

Example:

For 4-bit data (1011), redundant bits are added to form a 7-bit Hamming code: 1011010.

b) Forward Error Correction (FEC)

 A technique where the sender adds extra redundant data to help the receiver correct errors
without retransmission.
 Used in satellite communication, optical fiber, and wireless networks.

Example:

Reed-Solomon codes are used in CDs, DVDs, and QR codes for error correction.

c) Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

 Uses acknowledgments (ACK) and timeouts to detect errors.

 If an error is detected, the receiver requests retransmission.

Types:
 1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ: The sender waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next packet.
2. Go-Back-N ARQ: The sender continues sending packets but retransmits if an error occurs.
3. Selective Repeat ARQ: Only the erroneous packets are retransmitted.

 Used in TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for reliable communication.

9 Explain Parity and CRC error detection technique.

10 Explain Stop and Wait data link protocol.

Design of Stop-and-Wait Protocol
11 Explain Sliding Window Data link protocol.
 Explain the Stop and Wait ARQ Data link protocol.
12
Design of the Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol
13 Consider an error detection CRC with the generator 10101. Compute the transmitted bit sequence for the
data bit sequence 1101101.
14 Consider an arrow detection CRC with the generator 10101, the string of bits 110011001100 is received. Is
acceptable.and if so what is the data bit sequence.

Module_3

1 Explain the Network Layer Services.

 The network layer is a part of the communication process in computer networks.

 Its main job is to move data packets between different networks. It helps route these packets from the
sender to the receiver across multiple paths and networks.
 Network-to-network connections enable the Internet to function.
 These connections happen at thenetwork layer which sends data packets between different networks. In
the 7-layer OSI model, the network layer is layer 3.
 The Internet Protocol (IP) is a key protocol used at this layer, along with other protocols for routing,
testing, and encryption.

Advantages of Network Layer Services

 Packetization service in the network layer provides ease of transportation of the data packets.
 Packetization also eliminates single points of failure in data communication systems.
 Routers present in the network layer reduce network traffic by creating collision and broadcast
domains.
  With the help of Forwarding, data packets are transferred from one place to another in the network.

Disadvantages of Network Layer Services

 There is a lack of flow control in the design of the network layer.

 Congestion occurs sometimes due to the presence of too many datagrams in a network that is beyond
the capacity of the network or the routers. Due to this, some routers may drop some of the datagrams,
and some important pieces of information may be lost.
 Although indirect error control is present in the network layer, there is a lack of proper error control
mechanisms as due to the presence of fragmented data packets, error control becomes difficult to
implement.

2 Explain the Network Layer Performance.

Network Layer Performance

The Network Layer (Layer 3 of the OSI Model) is responsible for routing, addressing, and forwarding
data packets across networks. Its performance is crucial for efficient data transmission in a network.
3 Explain Classes in IPV4 protocol.
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is a 32-bit addressing scheme that uniquely identifies devices in a
network. These addresses are categorized into five classes (A, B, C, D, and E) based on their first few bits
and the range of IP addresses they cover.

a) Class A

 First bit is always 0, meaning it covers 1 to 126 as the first octet.

 Supports 16 million hosts per network (suitable for very large organizations).
 Example: 10.0.0.1 (used in large networks).
 Loopback address (127.x.x.x) is reserved for testing.

b) Class B

 First two bits are 10, meaning it covers 128 to 191 in the first octet.
 Supports up to 65,534 hosts per network, making it ideal for medium-sized organizations.
 Example: 172.16.0.1 (used in enterprise networks).

c) Class C

 First three bits are 110, covering 192 to 223 in the first octet.
 Supports up to 254 hosts per network, making it ideal for small businesses and home networks.
 Example: 192.168.1.1 (commonly used in Wi-Fi routers).

d) Class D (Multicast)

 First four bits are 1110, covering 224 to 239.

 Used for multicasting applications (e.g., IPTV, live streaming, VoIP).
 No subnetting as it is not used for traditional networking.

e) Class E (Experimental)

 First four bits are 1111, covering 240 to 255.

 Reserved for future use and research.
4 Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation.(Numerical )

5 Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation.
(numerical )

6 Find the class of each address.(Numerical)

7 Explain Class A and Class B in detail.

Class A
 IP addresses belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
 The higher-order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in the first octet
 are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network.
 The default subnet mask for Class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a total of:
 224 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
 IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255.

Class B
 IP address belonging to class B is assigned to networks that range from medium-sized to large-sized
networks.
 The network ID is 16 bits long.
 The host ID is 16 bits long.
 The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The remaining
14 bits are used to determine the network ID.
 The 16 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network. The default subnet mask for class
B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has a total of:
 214 = 16384 network address
 216 – 2 = 65534 host address
 IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255.

8 Find the starting and Ending address of Each Class.