Lesson 4 Series Circuit

Overview:

This lesson focuses on the Series Circuit configuration with the application of Ohm’s Law and
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the operation of a series circuit in term of voltage, current and resistance.
2. Explain the application of Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage law in series circuit.

Course Materials:

A series circuit is any circuit that provides only one path for current flow. An example of a series
circuit is shown in Fig. 4–1. Here two resistors are connected end to end with their opposite
ends connected across the terminals of a voltage source. Figure 4–1a shows the pictorial wiring
diagram, and Fig. 4–1 b shows the schematic diagram. The small dots in Fig. 4–1 b represent
free electrons. Notice that the free electrons have only one path to follow as they leave the
negative terminal of the voltage source, flow through resistors R 2 and R 1, and return to the
positive terminal. Since there is only one path for electrons to follow, the current, I, must be the
same in all parts of a series circuit. To solve for the values of voltage, current, or resistance in a
series circuit, we can apply Ohm’s law.

Why I Is the Same in All Parts of a Series Circuit?

An electric current is a movement of charges between two points, produced by the applied
voltage. When components are connected in successive order, as in Fig. 4–1, they form a
series circuit. The resistors R 1 and R 2 are in series with each other and the battery.

In Fig. 4–2 a, the battery supplies the potential difference that forces free electrons to drift from
the negative terminal at A, toward B, through the connecting wires and resistances R3, R2, and
R1, back to the positive battery terminal at J. At the negative battery terminal, its negative
charge repels electrons. Therefore, free electrons in the atoms of the wire at this terminal are
repelled from A toward B. Similarly, free electrons at point B can then repel adjacent electrons,
producing an electron drift toward C and away from the negative battery terminal.

At the same time, the positive charge of the positive battery terminal attracts free electrons,
causing electrons to drift toward I and J. As a result, the free electrons in R1, R2, and R3 are
forced to drift toward the positive terminal

The positive terminal of the battery attracts electrons just as much as the negative side of the
battery repels electrons. Therefore, the motion of free electrons in the circuit starts at the same
time and at the same speed in all parts of the circuit.
Figure 4–1 A series circuit. (a) Pictorial wiring diagram. (b) Schematic diagram.

In Fig. 4–2 b, when the current is 2 A, for example, this is the value of the current through R1, R2,
R3, and the battery at the same instant. Not only is the amount of current the same throughout,
but the current in all parts of a series circuit cannot differ in any way because there is just one
current path for the entire circuit. Figure 4–2 c shows how to assemble axial-lead resistors on a
lab prototype board to form a series circuit.

Figure 4–2 There is only one current through R1, R2, and R3 in series. (a) Electron drift is the
same in all parts of a series circuit. (b) Current I is the same at all points in a series circuit. (c) A
series circuit assembled on a lab prototype board, using axial-lead resistors.
The order in which components are connected in series does not affect the current. In Fig. 4–3
b , resistances R1 and R2 are connected in reverse order compared with Fig. 4–3 a , but in both
cases they are in series. The current through each is the same because there is only one path
for the electron flow. Similarly, R3, R4, and R5 are in series and have the same current for the
connections shown in Fig. 4–3 c, d, and e. Furthermore, the resistances need not be equal.

Figure 4–3 Examples of series connections: R1 and R2 are in series in both (a) and (b); also, R3,
R4, and R5 are in series in (c), (d), and (e).

Total R Equals the Sum of All Series Resistances

When a series circuit is connected across a voltage source, as shown in Fig. 4–3, the free
electrons forming the current must drift through all the series resistances. This path is the only
way the electrons can return to the battery. With two or more resistances in the same current
path, therefore, the total resistance across the voltage source is the opposition of all the
resistances. Specifically, the total resistance RT of a series string is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances. This rule is illustrated in Fig. 4–4. In Fig. 4–4 b, 2  is added in series
with the 3  of Fig. 4–4 a, producing the total resistance of 5 . The total opposition of R 1 and
R 2 limiting the amount of current is the same as though a 5- resistance were used, as shown
in the equivalent circuit in Fig. 4–4 c.

Figure 4–4 Series resistances are added for the total RT. (a) R1 alone is 3  . (b) R1 and R2 in
series total 5 . (c) The RT of 5  is the same as one resistance of 5  between points A and B.

Series Resistance Formula

The total resistance of a series string equals the sum of the individual resistances. The formula
is
 RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ・ ・ ・ + etc. (4–1)
where RT is the total resistance and R1, R2 and R3, are individual series resistances. This
formula applies to any number of resistances, whether equal or not, as long as they are in the
same series string. Note that R T is the resistance to use in calculating the
current in a series string. Then Ohm’s law is

(4–2)

where RT is the sum of all the resistances, VT is the voltage applied across the total resistance,
and I is the current in all parts of the string.

Example 4-1

Example 4-2

Series IR Voltage Drops

With current I through a resistance, by Ohm’s law, the voltage across R is equal to I x R. This
rule is illustrated in Fig. 4–5 for a string of two resistors. In this circuit, I is 1 A because the
applied VT of 10 V is across the total RT of 10 , equal to the 4- R1 plus the 6- R2 . Then I is
10 V/10  = 1 A. For each IR voltage in Fig. 4–5, multiply each R by the 1 A of current in the
series circuit. Then

The V1 of 4 V is across the 4  of R1. Also, the V2 of 6 V is across the 6  of R2. The two
voltages V1 and V2 are in series. The IR voltage across each resistance is called an IR drop, or
a voltage drop, because it reduces the potential difference available for the remaining
resistances in the series circuit. Note that the symbols V1 and V2 are used for the voltage drops
across each resistor to distinguish them from the source VT applied across both resistors.

The IR drop of 4 V across R1 in Fig. 4–5 represents that part of the applied voltage used to
produce the current of 1 A through the 4- resistance. Also, the IR drop across R2 is 6 V
because this much voltage allows 1 A in the 6- resistance. The IR drop is more in R2 because
more potential difference is necessary to produce the same amount of current in the higher
resistance. For series circuits, in general, the highest R has the largest IR voltage drop across it.

Figure 4–5 An example of IR voltage drops V 1 Figure 4–6 Circuit for Example 4–3.
and V 2 in a series circuit.

Example 4-3 In Fig. 4–6, solve for RT, I, and the individual resistor voltage drops.

Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the sum of all resistor voltage drops in a series circuit equals
the applied voltage. Expressed as an equation, Kirchhoff’s voltage law is

where VT is the applied voltage and V1 , V2 , V3 . . . are the individual IR voltage drops.

Example 4-4

A voltage source produces an IR drop of 40 V across a 20- R1, 60 V across a 30- R2, and
180 V across a 90- R3, all in series. According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, how much is the
applied voltage VT?

ANSWER
VT = 40 V + 60 V + 180 V
VT = 280 V

Note that the IR drop across each R results from the same current of 2 A, produced by 280 V
across the total RT of 140 .

Example 4-5

An applied VT of 120 V produces IR drops across two series resistors R1 and R2.If the voltage
drop across R1 is 40 V, how much is the voltage drop across R2?

ANSWER

Since V1 and V2 must total 120 V and V1 is 40 V, the voltage drop across R2 must be the
difference between 120 V and 40 V, or

V2 = VT + V1 + 120 V + 40 V
V2 = 80 V

It is logical that V T is the sum of the series IR drops. The current I is the same in all series
components. For this reason, the total of all series voltages V T is needed to produce the same I
in the total of all series resistances R T as the I that each resistor voltage produces in its R.

Polarity of IR Voltage Drops

When a voltage drop exists across a resistance, one end must be either more positive or more
negative than the other end. Otherwise, without a potential difference no current could flow
through the resistance to produce the voltage drop. The polarity of this IR voltage drop can be
associated with the direction of I through R. In brief, electrons flow into the negative side of the
IR voltage and out the positive side (see Fig. 4–8 a).

If we want to consider conventional current, with positive charges moving in the opposite
direction from electron fl ow, the rule is reversed for the positive charges. See Fig. 4–8 b. Here
the positive charges for I are moving into the positive side of the IR voltage.
Figure 4–8 The polarity of IR voltage drops. (a) Electrons Figure 4-9 Example of two IR
flow into the negative side of V1 across R1 . (b) The same voltage drops in series. Electron flow
 polarity of V1 with positive charges into the positive side. shown for direction of I.

A series circuit with two IR voltage drops is shown in Fig. 4–9. We can analyze these polarities
in terms of electron flow. The electrons move from the negative terminal of the source VT
through R2 from point C to D. Electrons move into C and out from D. Therefore C is the negative
side of the voltage drop across R2. Similarly, for the IR voltage drop across R1, point E is the
negative side, compared with point F.

Total Power in a Series Circuit

The power needed to produce current in each series resistor is used up in the form of heat.
Therefore, the total power used is the sum of the individual values of power dissipated in each
part of the circuit. As a formula,

As an example, in Fig. 4–10, R1 dissipates 40 W for P1 , equal to 20 V x 2 A for the VI product.

Or, the P1 calculated as I2 R is (2 x 2) x 10 = 40 W. Also, P1 is V2 / R, or (20 x 20)x10 = 40 W.

Similarly, P2 for R2 is 80 W. This value is 40 x 2 for VI, (2 x 2) x 20 for I2R, or (40 x 40)/20 for
V2/R. P2 must be more than P1 because R2 is more than R1 with the same current. The total
power dissipated by R1 and R2, then, is 40 + 80 = 120 W. This power is generated by the source
of applied voltage.

Analyzing Series Circuits with Random Unknowns

Refer to Fig. 4–10. Suppose that the source VT of 50 V is known, with a 14- R1 and 6- R2.
The problem is to find RT, I, the individual voltage drops V1 and V2 across each resistor, and the
power dissipated.

We must know the total resistance RT to calculate I because the total applied voltage VT is given.
This VT is applied across the total resistance RT. In this example, RT is 14 + 6 = 20 .

Now I can be calculated as VT / RT, or 50/20, which equals 2.5 A. This 2.5-A I flows through R1
and R2.
The individual voltage drops are
 Note that V 1 and V 2 total 50 V, equal to the applied VT.

The calculations to find the power dissipated in each resistor are as follows:

These two values of dissipated power total 125 W. The power generated by the source equals
VT x I or 50 x 2.5, which is also 125 W.

Figure 4–10 Analyzing a series circuit to find Figure 4–11 Find the resistance of R 3. See
I, V1, V2, P1, and P2. See text for solution. text for the analysis of this series circuit.

General Methods for Series Circuits

For other types of problems with series circuits, it is useful to remember the following:

1. When you know the I for one component, use this value for I in all components, for the
current is the same in all parts of a series circuit.
2. To calculate I, the total VT can be divided by the total RT, or an individual IR drop can be
divided by its R. For instance, the current in Fig. 4–12 could be calculated as V2 /R2 or 15/6,
which equals the same 2.5 A for I. However, do not mix a total value for the entire circuit
with an individual value for only part of the circuit.
3. When you know the individual voltage drops around the circuit, these can be added to equal
the applied VT. This also means that a known voltage drop can be subtracted from the total
VT to find the remaining voltage drop.

These principles are illustrated by the problem in Fig. 4–13. In this circuit, R1 and R2 are known
but not R3. However, the current through R3 is given as 3 mA. With just this information, all
values in this circuit can be calculated. The I of 3 mA is the same in all three series resistances.
Therefore,
The sum of V1 and V2 is 30 + 90 = 120 V. This 120 V plus
V3 must total 180 V. Therefore, V3 is 180 - 120 =
60 V. With 60 V for V3, equal to IR3 , then R3 must be
60/0.003, equal to 20,000  or 20 k. The total circuit resistance is 60 k, which results in the
current of 3 mA with 180 V applied, as specified in the circuit.

Troubleshooting: Opens and Shorts in Series Circuits

In many cases, electronic technicians are required to repair a piece of equipment that is no
longer operating properly. The technician is expected to troubleshoot the equipment and restore
it to its original operating condition. To troubleshoot means “to diagnose or analyze.” For
example, a technician may diagnose a failed electronic circuit by using a digital multimeter
(DMM) to make voltage, current, and resistance measurements. Once the defective component
has been located, it is removed and replaced with a good one. But here is one very important
point that needs to be made about troubleshooting: To troubleshoot a defective circuit, you must
understand how the circuit is supposed to work in the first place. Without this knowledge, your
troubleshooting efforts could be nothing more than guesswork. What we will do next is analyze
the effects of both opens and shorts in series circuits.

The Effect of an Open in a Series Circuit

1. The current I is zero in all components.

2. The voltage drop across each good component is 0 V.
3. The voltage across the open points equals the applied voltage.

The Effect of a Short in a Series Circuit

1. The current I increases above its normal value.

2. The voltage drop across each good component increases.
3. The voltage drop across the shorted component drops to 0 V.

General Rules for Troubleshooting Series Circuits

When troubleshooting a series circuit containing three or more resistors, remember this
important rule: The defective component will have a voltage drop that will change in the
opposite direction as compared to the good components. In other words, in a series circuit
containing an open, all the good components will have a voltage decrease from their normal
value to 0 V. The defective component will have a voltage increase from its normal value to the
full applied voltage. Likewise, in a series circuit containing a short, all good components will
have a voltage increase from their normal values and the defective component’s voltage drop
will decrease from its normal value to 0 V. The point to be made here is simple: The component
whose voltage changes in the opposite direction of the other components is the defective
component. In the case of an open resistor, the voltage drop increases to the value of the
applied voltage and all other resistor voltages decrease to 0 V. In the case of a short, all good
components show their voltage drops increasing, whereas the shorted component shows a
voltage decrease to 0 V. This same general rule applies to a series circuit that has components
whose resistances have increased or decreased from their normal values but are neither open
nor shorted.

REFERENCES

Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th ed by M. Schultz

Activities/Assessments:

1. State three rules for the current, voltage, and resistance in a series circuit.
2. Show how to connect three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 in series across a dc voltage source VT.
Indicate the polarity across each resistor and the flow of current using electron flow.