CHAPTER-1

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement system, any of the systems used in the process of associating numbers with
physical quantities and phenomena. Although the concept of weights and measures today
includes such factors as temperature, luminosity, pressure, and electric current, it once
consisted of only four basic measurements: mass (weight), distance or length, area, and
volume (liquid or grain measure). Basic to the whole idea of weights and measures are the
concepts of uniformity, units, and standards. Uniformity, the essence of any system of
weights and measures, requires accurate, reliable standards of mass and length and agreed-
on units. A unit is the name of a quantity, such as kilogram or pound. A standard is the
physical embodiment of a unit, such as the platinum-iridium cylinder kept by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Paris as the standard kilogram. Two types
of measurement systems are distinguished historically: an evolutionary system, such as the
British Imperial, which grew more or less haphazardly out of custom, and a planned
system, such as the International System of Units (SI), in universal use by the world's
scientific community and by most nations.

The International System of Units (French: Systeme international d'unites, SI) is the modern
form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises
a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units. It defines twenty-two
named units, and includes many more unnamed coherent derived units. The system also
establishes a set of twenty

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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
A systematic organization and analysis are more important for measurement systems.
The whole operation system can be described in terms of functional elements. The
functional elements of generalized measurement system are shown in figure 1.

Fig 1: Functional elements of generalized measurement system

Most of the measurement system consists of following functional elements.

1. Primary sensing element

2. Variable conversion element

3. Variable manipulation element

4. Data transmission element

5. Data storage and playback element

6. Data presentation element

1. Primary Sensing Element

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with pnmary sensmg element
of measurement system. The quantity is first sensed or detected by primary sensor. Then
detected physical quantity signal is converted into an electrical signal by a transducer.

Transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical

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quantity. Sensor is acting as primary element of transducer. In many cases the physical
quantity is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a transducer. So, the first stage
of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage.
Example, Pressure transducer with pressure sensor, Temperature sensor etc.,

2. Variable Conversion Element

The output of primary sensing element is electrical signal of any form like a voltage,
a frequency or some other electrical parameter. Sometime this output is not suitable for next
level of system. So, it is necessary to convert the output some other suitable form while
maintaining the original signal to perform the desired function the system.
For example, the output primary sensing element is in analog form of signal and next
stage of system accepts only in digital form of signal. So, we have to convert analog signal
into digital form using an A/D converter. Here A/D converter is acting as variable conversion
element.

3. Variable Manipulation Element

The function of variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal offered but
original nature of signal is maintained in same state. Here manipulation means only change
in the numerical value of signal.
Examples,
1. Voltage amplifier is acting as variable manipulation element. Voltage amplifier accepts
a small voltage signal as input and produces the voltage with greater magnitude. H e r e
numerical value of voltage magnitude is increased.
2. Attenuator acts as variable manipulation element. It accepts a high voltage signal and
produces the voltage or power with lower magnitude. Here numerical value of voltage
magnitude is decreased.
o Linear process manipulation elements: Amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction etc.,
o Nonlinear process manipulation elements: Modulation, detection, sampling,
filtering, chopping and clipping etc.,
All these elements are performed on the signal to bring it to desired level to be accepted

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by the next stage of measurement system. This process of conversion is called signal
conditioning. The combination of variable conversion and variable manipulation elements
are called as Signal Conditioning Element.
4. Data Transmission Element
The elements of measurement system are actually physically separated; it becomes
necessary to transmit the data from one to another. The element which is performs this
function is called as data transmission element.
Example, Control signals are transmitted from earth station to Space-crafts by a telemetry
system using radio signals. Here telemetry system is act as data transmission element.
The combination of Signal conditioning and transmission element is known as Intermediate
Stage of measurement system.
5. Data storage and playback element
Some applications require a separate data storage and playback function for easily rebuild
the stored data based on the command. The data storage is made in the form of pen/ink
and digital recording. Examples, magnetic tape recorder/ reproducer, X-Y recorder, X-t
recorder, Optical Disc recording ect.,
6. Data presentation Element
The function of this element m the measurement system is to communicate the
information about the measured physical quantity to human observer or to present it in an
understandable form for monitoring, control and analysis purposes. Visual display devices
are required for monitoring of measured data. These devices may be analog or digital
instruments like ammeter, voltmeter, camera, CRT, printers, analog and digital computers.
Computers are used for control and analysis of measured data of measurement system. This
Final stage of measurement system is known as Terminating stage.

EXAMPLE OF GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:

The simple pressure measurement system using bourdon tube pressure gauge is shown in
figure 2. The detail functional elements of this pressure measurement system is given
below.

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 Primary sensing element : Pressure Sensed
Variable conversion element : Bourdon Tube
Data Transmission element : Mechanical Linkages
Variable Manipulation Element : Gearing arrangement
Data presentation Element : Pointer and Dial

Fig. 1.2 Bourdon tube pressure gauge

In this measurement system, bourdon tube is acting as primary sensing and variable
conversion element. The input pressure is sensed and converted into small displacement
by a bourdon tube. On account of input pressure, the closed end of the tube is displaced.
Because of this pressure in converted into small displacement. The closed end of bourdon
tube is connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement.
The small displacement signal can be amplified by gearing arrangement and
transmitted by mechanical linkages and finally it makes the pointer to rotate on a large
angle of scale. If it is calibrated with known input pressure, gives the measurement of the
pressure signal applied to the bourdon tube in measurand.

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1.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

These performance characteristics of an instrument are very important in their selection.

Static Characteristics: Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for
instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process condition. Performance
criteria based upon static relations represent the static Characteristics. (The static
characteristics are the value or performance given after the steady state condition
has reached).
Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are considered
for instruments which are used to measure a varying process condition. Performance
criteria based upon dynamic relations represent the dynamic Characteristics.

1.2.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

1) Accuracy
Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches to the true value of the quantity being measured. It determines the closeness to
true value of instrument reading. Accuracy is represented by percentage of full-scale
reading or in terms of inaccuracy or in terms of error value. Example, Accuracy of
temperature measuring instrument might be specified by±3°C. This accuracy means the
temperature reading might be within + or -3°C deviation from the true value. Accuracy of
an instrument is specified by ±5% for the range of O to 200°C in the
temperature scale means the reading might be within + or -10°C of the true reading.
2) Precision
Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement. Precision is
measures of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of measurements are
repeatedly made under the prescribed condition. Precision is used in measurements to
describe the stability or reliability or the reproducibility of results.

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 Table-l: Comparison between accuracy and precision

Accuracy Precision
It refers to degree of closeness of the It r e f e r s to the degree of agreement among
measured value to the true value group of readings
Accuracy gives the maximum error that is Precision of a measuring system gives
maximum departure of the final result from its its capability to reproduce a certain reading
true value w i t h a given accuracy

3) Bias
Bias 1s quantitative term describing the difference between the average of measured
readings made on the same instrument and its true value (It is a characteristic of measuring
instruments to give indications of the value of a measured quantity for which the average
value differs from true value).

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4) Sensitivity

Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output signal (response) to the change
in input signal (measurand). It is the relationship indicating how much output changes when
input changes.

If the sensitivity is constant then the system is said to be linear system. If the
sensitivity is variable then the system is said to be nonlinear system.

Fig. 3: Definition of sensitivity for (a) Linear and (b) Nonlinear instrument
When the calibration curve is linear as in figure 3a the sensitivity of the instrument
can be defined as in slope of the calibration curve. In this case sensitivity is constant over
the entire range of instrument. If the curve is not normally straight line or nonlinear
instrument sensitivity varies with the input or varies from on range to another as in figure
3b.
4) Linearity

Linearity is the best characteristics of an instrument or measurement system.

Linearity of the instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly proportional to input
over the entire range of instrument. So the degree of linear (straight line) relationship
between the output to input is called as linearity of an instrument.

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 Fig.4: Representation of Linearity and Non-Linearity of an Instrument

Nonlinearity: The maximum difference or deviation of output curve from the Specified idealized

straight line as shown in figure 4. Independent nonlinearity may be defined as

5) Resolution

Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest change in the input value that is required to cause an
appreciable change in the output. (The smallest increment in input or input change which can be
detected by an instrument is called as resolution or discrimination)

6) Hysteresis

Hysteresis 1s non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves on output. Hysteresis effect shows
up in any physical, chemical or electrical phenomenon. When input increases, output also increases
and calibration curve can be drawn. If input is decreases from maximum value and output also
decreases but does not follow the same curve, then there is a residual output when input is zero. This
phenomenon is called Hysteresis. The difference between increasing change and decreasing change
of output values is known as hysteresis error as shown in figure 5. (The different outputs from the
same value of quantity being measured are reached by a continuously increasing change or a
continuously decreasing change).

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 Fig. 1.3: Hysteresis Error of an instrument

7) Dead Zone
Dead zone or dead band is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which
there is no output the instrument due the factors such as friction, backlash and hysteresis
within the system. (The region upto which the instrument does not respond for an input
change is called dead zone). Dead time is the time required by an instrument to begin to
respond to change in input quantity.
8) Backlash
The maximum distance through which one part of the instrument is moved without
disturbing the other part is called as backlash. (Backlash may be defined as the maximum
distance or angle through which any part of the instrument can be moved without causing
any motion of next part of the system)

Fig. 1.4: Threshold because of backlash

Reasons for the presence of backlash in an instrument include allowing for

lubrication, manufacturing errors, deflection under load, and thermal expansion.

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9) Drift

Drift is an undesirable change in output over a period of time that is unrelated to

change in input, operating conditions. Drift is occurred in instruments due to internal
temperature variations, ageing effects and high stress etc.
Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero output.
It is expressed as percentage of full range output.

10) Threshold

The minimum value of input which is necessary to activate an instrument to

produce an output is termed its threshold as shown in figure 7. (Threshold is the
minimum value of the input required to cause the pointer to move from zero position).

Fig. 1.5 Threshold effect

11) Input Impedance

The magnitude of the impedance of element connected across the signal source is
called Input Impedance. Figure 8 shows a voltage signal source and input device connected
across it.

Fig. 1.6 voltage source and input device

The magnitude of the input impedance is given by

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 Power extracted by the input device from the signal source is

From above two expressions it is clear that a low input impedance device connected across the
voltage signal source draws more current and more power from signal source than high input
impedance device.
12) Loading Effect
Loading effect is the incapability of the system to faith fully measure, record or control the
input signal in accurate form.
13) Repeatability
Repeatability is defined as the ability of an instrument to give the same output for repeated
applications of same input value under same environmental condition.
14) Reproducibility

Reproducibility is defined as the ability of an instrument to reproduce the same output for
repeated applications of same input value under different environment condition. In case of
perfect reproducibility, the instrument satisfies no drift condition.
15) Static Error

The difference between the measured value of quantity and true value (Reference Value) of
quantity is called as Error.
Error= Measured value – True Value
δA= Am -At
Where:
δA- error
Am - Measured value of quantity
At - True value of quantity
16) Static Correction

It is the difference between the true value and the measurement value of the quantity δC= At -
Am = - δA

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 Where: δC - Static correction

17) Scale Range

It can be defined as the measure of the instrument between the lowest and highest readings
it can measure. A thermometer has a scale from -40°C to 100°C. Thus, the range
varies from -40°C to 100°C.

18) Scale Span

It can be defined as the range of an instrument from the minimum to maximum scale value. In the
case of a thermometer, its scale goes from -40°C to 100°C. Thus, its span is 140°C. As said
before accuracy is defined as a percentage of span. It is actually a deviation from true
expressed as a percentage of the span.

1.2.2 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by applying some standard form of

known and predetermined input to its primary element (sensing element) and then studies
the output. Generally dynamic behavior is determined by
applying following three types of inputs.
1. Step Input: Step change in which the primary element 1s subjected to an
instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.
2. Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element 1s, follows a measured
variable, changing linearly with time.
3. Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a
measured variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are

(i) Speed of response

{ii) Fidelity

{iii) Lag

(iv) Dynamic error

(i) Speed of Response
It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured quantity.
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(ii) Fidelity
It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured
variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction or fidelity of an instrument is the
ability of reproducing an input signal faithfully (truly).

(iii) Lag
It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured
variable. The measuring lags are two types:
Retardation type: In this case the response of an instrument begins immediately
after a change in measured variable is occurred.
Time delay type: In this case the response of an instrument begins after a dead
time after the application of the input quantity.
(iv) Dynamic Error
Error which is caused by dynamic influences acting on the system such as vibration, roll,
pitch or linear acceleration. This error may have an amplitude and usually a frequency
related to the environmental influences and the parameters of the system itself.

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1.3 NOISE AND INTERFERENCE IN INSTRUMENTATIONS. (Ref: Alan S. Morris)
Noise is the biggest environmental factor, which determines if a system will operate reliably
in practice. Noise can be random or repetitive, occurring continuously or in isolated burst. It
may affect current or voltage and may occur at any frequency from DC to very high
frequencies. A particular source may generate noise over narrow or wide band of frequencies.
Sometime the effect of noise on the system performance can be very drastic. The overall
performance of the circuit is entirely dependent on its noise characteristics. A highly
critically designed system may prove to be a failure if it does not conform to the noise
characteristics demanded by the application. It should be understood that the effect of noise
is usually application dependent. Noise fetches the extra amount of attention especially in
the instrumentation and measurements systems. The overall accuracies of such systems is
highly affected by the noise and the interference. It is absolutely necessary to find out the
remedy techniques for noise because it prevails almost in every electronics system.

Once the noise can be observed in a system it is already a composite signal from many
sources. So, the first step is to isolate and identify each noise source. With knowledge of
mechanisms, which produce noise, design rules can be introduced to ensure that systems are
both tolerant to received noise and can meet the statutory restrictions on emitted noise. This
paper discusses various practical techniques to remove noise from instrumentation systems.

1.3.1 NOISE SOURCES

The strategy for minimizing the effects of noise depends upon the location of its source. The
noise problems can generate either in the outer world or it can be caused and communicated
within the system or it can be the local problem with particular circuit or connection. In above
view noise is classified at below:

a) Internal noise

b) External noise
Induced noise from external sources arises in measurement systems for a number of reasons that
include their proximity to mains-powered equipment and cables (causing noise at the mains
frequency), proximity to fluorescent lighting circuits (causing noise at twice the mains frequency),
proximity to equipment operating at audio and radio frequencies (causing noise at corresponding
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frequency), switching of nearby d.c. and a.c. circuits, and corona discharge (both of the latter causing
induced spikes and transients). Internal noise includes thermoelectric potentials, shot noise and
potentials due to electrochemical action.

1.3.1.1 Inductive coupling

The primary mechanism by which external devices such as mains cables and equipment, fluorescent
lighting and circuits operating at audio or radio frequencies generate noise is through inductive
coupling. If signal-carrying cables are close to such external cables or equipment, a significant mutual
inductance M can exist between them, as shown in Figure 5.1(a), and this can generate a series mode
noise voltage of several millivolts given by Vn = MI, where I is the rate of change of current in the
mains circuit.

1.3.1.2 Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling

Capacitive coupling, also known as electrostatic coupling, can also occur between the signal wires in
a measurement circuit and a nearby mains-carrying conductor. The magnitude of the capacitance
between each signal wire and the mains conductor is represented by the quantities C1 and C2 in Figure
5.1(b). In addition to these capacitances, a capacitance can also exist between the signal wires and
earth, represented by C3 and C4 in the figure. It can be shown (Cook, 1979) that the series mode noise
voltage Vn is zero if the coupling capacitances are perfectly balanced, i.e. if C1= C2 and C3 = C4.
However, exact balance is unlikely in practice, since the signal wires are not perfectly straight, causing
the distances and thus the capacitances to the mains cable and to earth to vary. Thus, some series mode
noise voltage induced by capacitive coupling usually exists.

1.3.1.3 Noise due to multiple earths

As far as possible, measurement signal circuits are isolated from earth. However, leakage paths often
exist between measurement circuit signal wires and earth at both the source (sensor) end of the circuit
and also the load (measuring instrument) end.

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This does not cause a problem as long as the earth potential at both ends is the same. However, it is
common to find that other machinery and equipment carrying large currents is connected to the same
earth plane. This can cause the potential to vary between different points on the earth plane. This
situation, which is known as multiple earths, can cause a series mode noise voltage in the measurement
circuit.

1.3.1.4 Noise in the form of voltage transients

When motors and other electrical equipment (both a.c. and d.c.) are switched on and off, large changes
of power consumption suddenly occur in the electricity supply system. This can cause voltage
transients (‘spikes’) in measurement circuits connected to the same power supply. Such noise voltages
are of large magnitude but short time duration. Corona discharge can also cause voltage transients on
the mains power supply. This occurs when the air in the vicinity of high voltage d.c. circuits become
ionized and discharges to earth at random times.

1.3.1.5 Thermoelectric potentials

Whenever metals of two different types are connected together, a thermoelectric potential (sometimes
called a thermal e.m.f.) is generated according to the temperature of the joint. This is known as the
thermoelectric effect and is the physical principle on which temperature-measuring thermocouples
operate (see Chapter 14). Such thermoelectric potentials are only a few millivolts in magnitude and
so the effect is only significant when typical voltage output signals of a measurement system are of a
similar low magnitude.

One such situation is where one e.m.f.-measuring instrument is used to monitor the output of several
thermocouples measuring the temperatures at different points in a process control system. This

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requires a means of automatically switching the output of each thermocouple to the measuring
instrument in turn. Nickel–iron reed-relays with copper connecting leads are commonly used to
provide this switching function. This introduces a thermocouple effect of magnitude 40 μV/°C
between the reed-relay and the copper connecting leads. There is no problem if both ends of the reed
relay are at the same temperature because then the thermoelectric potentials will be equal and opposite
and so cancel out. However, there are several recorded instances where, because of lack of awareness
of the problem, poor design has resulted in the two ends of a reed-relay being at different temperatures
and causing a net thermoelectric potential. The serious error that this introduces is clear. For a
temperature difference between the two ends of only 2°C, the thermoelectric potential is 80 μV, which
is very large compared with a typical thermocouple output level of 400 μV. Another example of the
difficulties that thermoelectric potentials can create becomes apparent in considering the following
problem that was reported in a current-measuring system. This system had been designed such that
the current flowing in a particular part of a circuit was calculated by applying it to an accurately
calibrated wire-wound resistance of value 100Ω and measuring the voltage drop across the resistance.
In calibration of the system, a known current of 20 μA was applied to the resistance and a voltage of
2.20mV was measured by an accurate high-impedance instrument. Simple application of Ohm’s law
reveals that such a voltage reading indicates a current value of 22 μA. What then was the explanation
for this discrepancy? The answer once again is a thermoelectric potential. Because the designer was
not aware of thermoelectric potentials, the circuit had been constructed such that one side of the
standard resistance was close to a power transistor, creating a difference in temperature between the
two ends of the resistor of 2°C. The thermoelectric potential associated with this was sufficient to
account for the 10% measurement error found.

1.3.1.6 Shot noise

Shot noise occurs in transistors, integrated circuits and other semiconductor devices. It consists of
random fluctuations in the rate of transfer of carriers across junctions within such devices.

1.3.1.7 Electrochemical potentials

These are potentials that arise within measurement systems due to electrochemical action. Poorly
soldered joints are a common source.

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1.3.2 TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING MEASUREMENT NOISE

Prevention is always better than cure, and much can be done to reduce the level

of measurement noise by taking appropriate steps when designing the measurement

system.

1.3.2.1 Location and design of signal wires

Both the mutual inductance and capacitance between signal wires and other cables are inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the wires and the cable. Thus, noise due to inductive
and capacitive coupling can be minimized by ensuring that signal wires are positioned as far away as
possible from such noise sources. A minimum separation of 0.3m is essential, and a separation of at
least 1m is preferable. Noise due to inductive coupling is also substantially reduced if each pair of
signal wires is twisted together along its length. This design is known as a twisted pair, and is
illustrated in Figure 5.2. In the first loop, wire A is closest to the noise source and has a voltage V1
induced in it, whilst wire B has an induced noise voltage V2. For loop 2, wire B is closest to the noise
source and has an induced voltage V1 whilst wire A has an induced voltage V2. Thus, the total voltage
induced in wire A is V1+V2 and in wire B it is V2+V1 over these two loops. This pattern continues
for all the loops and hence the two wires have an identical voltage induced in them.

1.3.2.2 Earthing

Noise due to multiple earths can be avoided by good earthing practices. In particular, this means
keeping earths for signal wires and earths for high-current equipment entirely separate. Recommended
practice is to install four completely isolated earth circuits as follows:

Power earth: provides a path for fault currents due to power faults.

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Logic earth: provides a common line for all logic circuit potentials.

Analogue earth (ground): provides a common reference for all analogue signals.

Safety earth: connected to all metal parts of equipment to protect personnel should power lines come
into contact with metal enclosures.

1.3.2.3 Shielding

Shielding consists of enclosing the signal wires in an earthed, metal shield that is itself isolated
electrically from the signal wires. The shield should be earthed at only one point, preferably the signal
source end. A shield consisting of braided metal eliminates 85% of noise due to capacitive coupling
whilst a lapped metal foil shield eliminates noise almost entirely. The wires inside such a shield are
normally formed as a twisted pair so that protection is also provided against induced noise due to
nearby electromagnetic fields. Metal conduit is also sometimes used to provide shielding from
capacitve-coupled noise, but the necessary supports for the conduit provide multiple earth points and
lead to the problem of earth loops.

1.3.2.4 Other techniques

The phase-locked loop is often used as a signal-processing element to clean up poor quality signals.
Although this is primarily a circuit for measuring the frequency of a signal, as described in Chapter 7;
it is also useful for noise removal because its output waveform is a pure (i.e. perfectly clean) square
wave at the same frequency as the input signal, irrespective of the amount of noise, modulation or
distortion on the input signal.

Lock-in amplifiers (see section 5.5.10) are also commonly used to extract d.c. or slowly varying
measurement signals from noise. The input measurement signal is modulated into a square-wave a.c.
signal whose amplitude varies with the level of the input signal. This is normally achieved by either a
relay or a field effect transistor. As a relay is subject to wear; the transistor is better. An alternative
method is to use an analogue multiplier. Also, in the case of optical signals, the square wave can be
produced by chopping the measurement signals using a set of windows in a rotating disc. This
technique is frequently used with transducers like photodiodes that often generate large quantities of
noise.

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