BUSINESS NUMERACY: Matrices

A. Musopole

The Polytechnic
[email protected]

April 12, 2021

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Overview

1 Introduction Addition and Subtraction

Matrix Multiplication
2 Definition
Scalar Multiplication
3 Elements
9 Transpose of a Matrix
4 Order 10 Determinant
5 Types 11 Inverse
6 Representing Data 12 Solving SSLEs
7 Equal Matrices inverse method
8 Arithmetic Operations Cramer’s Rule

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Introduction

Consider a company that has got branches in Blantyre, Lilongwe and

Mzuzu. The company is involved in the production of breads, bans, cup
cakes, and milk scones. The table below provides the profits made last
year. The profits are in hundreds of millions of Malawi Kwachas.

Station Bread Bans cakes Scones

Blantyre 22 15 17 10
Lilongwe 17 21 16 14
Mzuzu 12 16 7 21

If we concentrate only at the numbers in the table, we can say that we

have the profits arranged in 3 rows and 4 columns.

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Introduction...

If we concentrate only on the figures in the table, we can say that we

have the profits arranged in 3 rows and 4 columns.

22 15 17 10
17 21 16 14
12 16 7 21
This looks simple- but there is a simpler way we can use to present
this information.

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Introduction...

We can present the numbers in rows and columns rounded with

brackets. The information given could appear as below.
 
22 15 17 10
17 21 16 14
12 16 7 21

We have presented the information in a matrix.

The matrix has 3 rows and 4 columns- it is a 3 by 4 matrix.

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Definition and Notation

A matrix is an array of numbers. The numbers are arranged in rows

and columns. The plural of matrix is matrices.
The numbers in a matrix are called elements.
The matrix is given by arranging the numbers in rows and columns
and enclosing them in brackets.
Capital letters denote matrices while smaller letters denote elements.
A matrix that has got r rows and c columns is said to be an r ×c
matrix, which is read r by c. We name a matrix based on the
numbers of rows and columns that it has. We always start with rows,
then columns.

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Definition and Notation...

Some examples:
   
12 13 7 3   12
12 13
M = 15 11 6 4 ; B =
  ; X = 15 ; and

15 11
8 7 9 2 8
 
A= 8 7 9 2 .
Matrix M has 3 rows and 4 columns- it is a 3×4 matrix. The
numbers of rows and columns for this matrix are different- it is an
example of a rectangular matrix. Matrix B is a 2×2 matrix. The
number of rows is equal to the number of columns- it is a square
matrix. Matrix A is a 1×4 matrix- it has only one row, hence it is
called a row matrix. Matrix X is a 3×1 matrix- it has only one
column, hence it is called a column matrix.

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Identifying Elements in a Matrix
In a matrix, each element is in a particular row and column. The rows
and columns make a grid that we can use to uniquely identify an
element. Consider the matrix below.
 
12 15 7 9
M=
15 11 6 5
7 is an element in row 1 column 3; 15 is in row 2 column 1.
The general form of matrix A which is m×n matrix is
 
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n 
 
A =  a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n  .
 
 .. .. .. .. .
.. 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 . . . amn

aij is an element in the i th row and j th column. We can also write

A = [aij ]m×n .
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Order of Matrices

The number of rows and columns that a matrix has is called its order
or its dimension. By convention, rows are listed first, and columns
second.
Consider the matrices provided below.
     
12 13 7 12 13 12  
M = 15 11 6 ; B = 15 11 ; X = 15 ; and A = 8 7 .
8 7 9 14 13 8

M is 3×3 matrix; B is 3×2 matrix; X is 3×1 matrix; and A is 1×2

matrix. In M a32 = 7- we do not have a24 because we do not have
column 4; a71 is also not available, so is a57 .

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Types of Matrices
Square matrix- this is a matrix with the number of rows equal to the
number of columns. Thus A = [aij ]m×n is a square matrix if m = n.
Some examples are below.
 
  12 13 7 14
2 3 8  
12.1 13.4 15 11 6 10
M = 5 1 7  ; B = ;X = 8 7 9 13 .

1 15.4 11.3
9 4 2
11 12 10 9
Identity matrix- this is a square matrix with ones in the
main/leading diagonal and zeroes off the main/leading diagonal.
A = [aij ]m×n is an identity matrix if aij = 1 when i = j, and aij = 0
when i6=j. Some examples are below.
 
  1 0 0 0
1 0 0  
1 0 0 1 0 0
H= 0 1 0 ;G=
  ; and K = 
0 0 1 0 .

0 1
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
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Types of Matrices...
Zero matrix- this is a matrix with every element in it a zero.
A = [aij ]m×n is an zero matrix if aij = 0 for i and j. Consider the
examples below.
     
0 0 0   0 0 0
Q = 0 0 0 ; P = 0 0 ; Z = 0 ; and C = 0 0 .
0 0 0 0 0 0
Vector matrix- this is a row or column matrix. A row matrix has one
row only- the order of a row matrix is 1×n, where n is the number of
columns, A = [aij ]1×n . A column matrix has only one column- its
order is m×1, where m is the number of rows, A = [aij ]m×1 . Consider
some examples below.
 
7
  0
J = 17 20 19.2 ; and L =  3 .


9
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Types of Matrices...

Scalar- is a constant (a real number). Some examples are provided

below.

75, − 4, 0.0643, − 85.45, − 0.32, and 456.23.

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Representing Real Life Data Using Matrices

Matrices can be used to represent real life data- this is when the data
is in two dimension.
Example: A small company that has got branches in Lilongwe and
Mzuzu is involved in the production of breads, bans, and cup cakes.
Last year, profits made in Lilongwe were MK15, 000, 000.00,
MK11, 000, 000.00, and MK6, 000, 000.00 on breads, bans, and cup
cakes respectively. Profits made in Mzuzu were MK8, 000, 000.00,
MK7, 000, 000.00, and MK9, 000, 000.00 on breads, bans and cup
cakes respectively.
In matrix form, the data can be represented is below (the values are
in millions of Malawi Kwachas).

bread
 ban cake

Lilongwe 15 11 6
Mzuzu 8 7 9

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Representing Real Life Data Using Matrices...

Example: The table below provides the numbers of loaves of breads,

yellow bans, and cup cakes that were sold in a week by a business at
two of its selling points. The table provides also the unit price of each
of the items.
Selling point bread yellow ban cup cake
Kanengo 2050 3210 1230
Katoto 2113 2986 2400
Price (MK) 340 150 200
The total money made at Kanengo was
(2050×MK340)+(3210×MK150)+(1230×MK200) = MK1, 424, 500;
and that at Katoto was
(2113×MK340)+(2986×MK150)+(2400×MK200) = MK1, 646, 320.

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Representing Real Life Data Using Matrices...

Let the matrices N and P represent numbers of items baked and prices of
the items (for a unit). Then
 
  340
2050 3210 1230
N= and P = 150 .

2113 2986 2400
200

Matrix P can also be a row vector depending on how we want to

manipulate the information.

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Equality of Matrices
Two or more matrices are said to be equal if they are of the same
order and the corresponding elements are equal. Thus for every aij ∈A
and bij ∈B, aij = bij where both A and B are m×n matrices. For
example, suppose we have matrices A and B as below.
   
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13
A = a21 a22 a23  and B = b21 b22 b23  .
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33

With the order the same, A = B if a11 = b11 , a12 = b12 , a13 = b13 ,
a21 = b21 , a22 = b22 , a23 = b23 , a31 = b31 , a32 = b32 , and a33 = b33 .
Consider the given matrices- the matrices are equal.
   
10 8 10 8
Z =  9 7 and Y =  9 7 .
−4 5 −4 5

Thus Z = Y .
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Equality of Matrices...

Let us look at the matrices provided below- the matrices are equal.
   
10 8 −12 4 10 8 −12 4
H= a 7 14 −16 and G =  9 7 14 23 y  .
−4 5 18 10 −4 5 3x 10

Let us try to find the values of the unknowns.

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Equality of Matrices...
Let us look at the matrices provided below- the matrices are equal.
   
10 8 −12 4 10 8 −12 4
H= a 7 14 −16 and G =  9 7 14 23 y  .
−4 5 18 10 −4 5 3x 10

Let us try to find the values of the unknowns. Since H = G , we have

a = 9.
3x 18
3x = 18 ⇒ 3 = 3 ⇒ x = 6.

2 2
y = −16 ⇒ 3× y = −16×3
3 3
2y −48
⇒2y = −48 ⇒ =
2 2
⇒y = −24.

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Arithmetic Operations on Matrices

We will focus on the operations

Addition and subtraction,
Matrix multiplication, and
Scalar multiplication.

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Addition and Subtraction

When adding or subtracting two matrices, we add or subtract the

corresponding elements of the two matrices. Thus we can add or subtract
only those matrices that have the same dimension- for every aij ∈A and
bij ∈B, A±B = [aij ±bij ]m×n where both A and B are m×n matrices.
Consider the matrices
       
4 −2 1 3 5 1 3 6 2 10
P= ;Q= ;R= ; and S = .
6 8 4 2 7 4 2 9 −4 2

Let us try to find

P + Q.
R + P.
Q + P.
S − R.
R − S.

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Addition and Subtraction...

       
4 −2 1 3 4 + 1 −2 + 3 5 1
P +Q = + = = .
6 8 4 2 6+4 8+2 10 10
R + P is not possible (R and P have different dimensions).
       
1 3 4 −2 1 + 4 3 + (−2) 5 1
Q +P = + = = .
4 2 6 8 4+6 2+8 10 10

     
6 2 10 5 1 3 6 − 5 2 − 1 10 − 3
S −R = − =
9 −4 2 7 4 2 9 − 7 −4 − 4 2 − 2
 
1 1 7
=
2 −8 0

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Addition and Subtraction...


    
5 1 3 6 2 10 5−6 1−2 3 − 10
R −S = − =
7 4 2 9 −4 2 7 − 9 4 − (−4) 2 − 2
 
−1 −1 −7
= .
−2 8 0

Note that P + Q = Q + P. Thus addition of matrices is

commutative- in general, given matrices A and B of the same
dimension, A + B = B + A.
Subtraction is not commutative. In general, A − B6=B − A. There are
of course some exception cases, but we are interested in the general
case.

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Addition and Subtraction...

Consider matrices
     
−2 2x 13 −8 5 9 6 y 4
M= ;N= ; and O = .
y 13 −4 2 3 −11 −2x 10 7

Suppose we are told that M = N + O. We will try to find the values of

the unknowns.

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Addition and Subtraction...
Consider matrices
     
−2 2x 13 −8 5 9 6 y 4
M= ;N= ; and O = .
y 13 −4 2 3 −11 −2x 10 7

Suppose we are told that M = N + O. We will try to find the values of

the unknowns. We have
     
5 2x 3 −8 5 9 6 −y 4
= + .
2y 7 −4 2 3 −11 −x 10 7

Adding corresponding elements will give us

2x = 5 − y
2y = 2 − x

Using substitution, we will make y in 2x = 5 − y the subject of the

formula. We have y = 5 − 2x. We will substitute 5 − 2x for y in
2y = 2 − x. We get
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Addition and Subtraction...

2y = 2 − x
⇒2(5 − 2x) = 2 − x
⇒10 − 4x = 2 − x
⇒ − 4x + x = 2 − 10
⇒ − 3x = −8
−3x −8
⇒ =
−3 −3
2
⇒x = 2 .
3

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Addition and Subtraction...

We will substitute 2 32 for x in 2x = 5 − y . We have

2x = 5 − y
 
2
⇒2 2 =5−y
3
16
⇒ =5−y
3
16
⇒ − 5 = −y
3
1
⇒ = −y
3
1
⇒y = − .
3

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Matrix Multiplication
Given matrices A and B, we can find the product of A and B, C = AB,
when the number of columns in A is the same as the number
P of rows in B.
Thus if A = [aij ]m×n and B = [bjk ]n×p , we have AB = [ aij bjk ]m×p .
Thus given
 
  b11 b12
a a a
A = 11 12 13 and B = b21 b22  .
a21 a22 a23
b31 b32

Then
 
  b11 b12
a11 a12 a13 
C = AB = b21 b22 
a21 a22 a23
b31 b32
 
a11 b11 + a12 b21 + a13 b31 a11 b12 + a12 b22 + a13 b32
= .
a21 b11 + a22 b21 + a23 b31 a21 b12 + a22 b22 + a23 b32

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Matrix Multiplication...

Example: Let us multiply the matrices (finding VK )

 
−4 7  
3 2
V =  5 2 and K = .
1 5
9 1

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Matrix Multiplication...

Example: Let us multiply the matrices (finding VK )

 
−4 7  
3 2
V =  5 2  and K = .
1 5
9 1

 
−4 7  
3 2
VK = 5 2
 
1 5
9 1
   
−4×3 + 7×1 −4×2 + 7×5 −5 27
=  5×3 + 2×1 5×2 + 2×5  =  17 20 .
9×3 + 1×1 9×2 + 1×5 28 23

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Matrix Multiplication...

Example: Suppose a person bought 12 packets of sugar, 7 loaves of bread,

and 11 packets of tea. The unit prices are K850, K350, and K120
respectively. Let us say we are required to express the information as
matrices that we can multiply; and we are required, using the matrices to
find the total expenditure.

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Matrix Multiplication...

Example: Suppose a person bought 12 packets of sugar, 7 loaves of bread,

and 11 packets of tea. The unit prices are K850, K350, and K120
respectively. Let us say we are required to express the information as
matrices that we can multiply; and we are required, using the matrices to
find the total expenditure.

Let us say we have matrices Q and P where Q contains quantities and P

contains prices. For multiplication to work, one has to be a row matrix
and the other a column matrix. Thus
 
  850
Q = 12 7 11 and P = 350 . 
120

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Matrix Multiplication...

Then
 
  850    
QP = 12 7 11 350 = 12×850 + 7×350 + 11×120 = 13970
120

The total expenditure is K13, 970.

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Matrix Multiplication...

Try: Product M has fixed cost of K4, 200 and variable cost of K2, 000 per
product; and product N has fixed cost of K1, 000 and variable cost of
K1, 500 per product.
Suppose for each, M and N, q products have been produced, come
up with matrices for costs (C ) and quantity (Q)- the matrices should
be in a manner that they can be multiplied.
Find CQ and interpret.
Product M sell at K3, 500 and product N sell at K2, 200. Come up
with the revenue matrix (PQ- where P is cost matrix). And evaluate
PQ − CQ. Interpret PQ − CQ.
What quantity, q, will make profits on M and N the same?
(Matrix multiplication is not commutative- thus AB6=BA.)

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Scalar Multiplication

With scalar multiplication, we multiply a matrix by a constant

(scalar)- we multiply each and every element of the matrix by the
scalar (constant). Thus for every aij ∈A and a scalar c, we have
cA = [c×aij ]m×n .
Consider matrices
     
3 −4 9 13 7 2
P =  6 10  , Q = 15 7  and R =  0 0 .
−5 0 4 1 −10 3

Find
−4Q.
0.5P.
−3R + 2P.
3Q − 2P + 4R.

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Transpose of a Matrix

The transpose of a matrix A is denoted AT . The transpose of a

matrix exchanges the rows and columns. The ith column becomes
the ith row. The aij entry becomes the aji entry.
Example: the transpose of the matrix
 
  1 3
1 2 4
is 2 5 .
3 5 7
4 7

Example: the transpose of the matrix

   
1 3 9 1 1 4
1 2 7 is 3 2 5 .
4 5 6 9 7 6

Note that (AB)T = B T AT .

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Determinant of a Matrix

2×2 matrix: suppose we are given the matrix

 
a11 a12
A= .
a21 a22

Determinant of matrix A, denoted |A|, is given by

a11 a12
|A| = = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22
 
3 −3
Example: For matrix K = , let us determine the
4 7
determinant.

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Determinant of a Matrix...

 
3 −3
Example: For matrix K = , the determinant is
4 7

3 −3
|K | = = 3×7 − (−3)×4 = 33.
4 7

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Determinant of a Matrix...
3×3 matrix: suppose we are given the matrix
 
a11 a12 a13
A = a21
 a22 a23  .
a31 a32 a33
We will use Sarru’s rule.
+ + +
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12

a21 a22 a23 a21 a22

a31 a32 a33 a31 a32

− − −

|A| = (a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 )
− (a31 a22 a13 + a32 a23 a11 + a33 a21 a12 ) .

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Determinant of a Matrix...

 
3 2 1
Example: consider the matrix V = 1 1 1 . Let us find its determinant.
3 1 2

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Determinant of a Matrix...
 
3 2 1
Example: consider the matrix V = 1 1 1 .
3 1 2
We will use Sarru’s rule.
+ + +
3 2 1 3 2

1 1 1 1 1

3 1 2 3 1
− − −

|V | = (3×1×2 + 2×1×3 + 1×1×1) − (3×1×1 + 1×1×3 + 2×1×2)

= (6 + 6 + 1) − (3 + 3 + 4) = 13 − 10 = 3.

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Determinant of a Matrix...

We are able to find the determinant of only a square matrix. Given

matrices A and B, and the scalar k, we have the properties
|kA| = k|A|
|AB| = |A||B|
0
|A | = |A|

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The Inverse of a Matrix

The inverse of a square matrix A, denoted by A−1 , is a matrix such

that
AA−1 = A−1 A = I .
I is the identity matrix.
2×2 matrix- suppose we have a 2×2 matrix
 
a11 a12
A= .
a21 a22

Then  
−1 1 a22 −a12
A =
|A| −a21 a11
with |A|6=0. When we get |A| = 0, the inverse does not exist.

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The Inverse of a Matrix...

For each of the matrices below, let us try to find the inverse.
   
5 −9 −3 −6
Z= ;B= .
4 3 4 8

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The Inverse of a Matrix...

For each of the matrices below, let us try to find the inverse.
   
5 −9 −3 −6
Z= ;B= .
4 3 4 8

|Z | = (5×3) − (−9×4) = 15 + 36 = 51. Thus the inverse exists.

Then   1 3
 
1 3 9
Z −1 = = 174 17 5
51 −4 5 − 51 51
|B| = (−3×8) − (−6×4) = 0. Thus the inverse for B does not exist.

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The Inverse of a Matrix (3×3 matrix)...
Minors: the minor for element aij of matrix A, denoted Mij , is found
by removing the ith row and jth column from A and then calculating
the determinant of the remaining matrix.
Cofactor matrix of A contains elements that are cofactors of A. The
cofactor for element aij of matrix A, denoted Cij , is given by
(−1)i+j Mij .
Adjoint matrix: the adjoint matrix of A, adj(A) is obtained by
taking the transpose of the cofactor matrix of A.
The inverse of matrix A is given by
1
A−1 = ×adj(A).
det(A)
Example: We will find the inverse of the matrix
 
7 2 1
A =  0 3 −1 .
−3 4 −2
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The Inverse of a Matrix (3×3 matrix)...
The cofactors of the given matrix:

3 -1 0 -1
C11 = (−1)1+1 = −2, C12 = (−1)1+2 = 3,
4 -2 -3 -2
0 3 2 1
C13 = (−1)1+3 = 9, C21 = (−1)2+1 = 8,
-3 4 4 -2
7 1 7 2
C22 = (−1)2+2 = −11, C23 = (−1)2+3 = −34,
-3 -2 -3 4
2 1 7 1
C31 = (−1)3+1 = −5, C32 = (−1)3+2 = 7,
3 -1 0 -1
7 2
C33 = (−1)3+3 = 21.
0 3

The determinant of the given matrix is

det(A) = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13 = 7(−2) + 2(3) + 1(9) = 1.

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The Inverse of a Matrix (3×3 matrix)...

Then
 T  T
C C12 C13 −2 3 9
1 1  11 1
A−1 = adj(A) = C21 C22 C23  =  8 −11 −34
det(A) det(A) 1
C31 C32 C33 −5 7 21
 
−2 8 −5
=  3 −11 7 .
9 −34 21

Note that (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .

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Solving Systems of Simultaneous Linear Equations

We consider only two methods.

The inverse method.
Cramer’s rule.

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The Inverse Method

Consider the system of linear equations below.

a11 x + a12 y = r
a21 x + a22 y = s

This system can be expressed in the matrix form AX = B where

     
a11 a12 x r
A= ;X = ; and .
a21 a22 y s

Thus the system of equations, in the form AX = B, becomes

    
a11 a12 x r
= .
a21 a22 y s

Multiplying the matrices and using the equality property should give us
back the original system of equations.

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The Inverse Method...
Let us have a close look at the matrix form of the system. If the
inverse of A exists, we have have

AX = B
⇒A−1 AX = A−1 B
⇒I X = A−1 B
⇒X = A−1 B.
 
x
We know that X = . Thus the solution (values of x and y ) is
y
found by multiplying the inverse of A and matrix B.
Example: Let us solve the system below.

2x = 5 − y
2y = 2 − x

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The Inverse Method...

Let us first re-arrange the system. We have

2x + y = 5
x + 2y = 2

In matrix form AX = B, we get

    
2 1 x 5
= .
1 2 y 2

If A−1 exists, then X = A−1 B is our solution. |A| = (2×2) − (1×1) = 3

(A−1 exists).   2
− 13
 
−1 1 2 −1 3
A = = .
3 −1 2 − 13 2
3

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The Inverse Method...

Then
2
− 13
    8 
−1 3 5
X =A B= = 31
− 13 2
3 2 −3
8
Thus x = 3 = 2 23 and y = − 13 .

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Cramer’s Rule

This method involves the calculation of determinants and their ratios. The
value of only one variable is found. If you have several variables, then the
formula is applied several times. Suppose we have the system below.

a11 x + a12 y = r
a21 x + a22 y = s

We can have the system in matrix form AX = B. Given that |A|6=0

r a12 a11 r
|Ax | s a22 |Ay | a21 s
x= = ,y= = .
|A| |A| |A| |A|

Here we create a new matrix by replacing column of the variable of

interest in A by the solution vector. Then we find the ratio of the
determinant of the new matrix and that of |A|.

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Cramer’s Rule...

Let us try to solve the system below using Cramer’s rule

2x = 5 − y
2y = 2 − x

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Cramer’s Rule...

Let us try to solve the system below using Cramer’s rule

2x = 5 − y
2y = 2 − x

We will first re-arrange the system:

2x + y = 5
x + 2y = 2

In matrix form AX = B, we have

    
2 1 x 5
= .
1 2 y 2

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Cramer’s Rule...

We have |A| = (2×2) − (1×1) = 3. Then

5 1
|Ax | 2 2
x= =
|A| 3
10 − 2 8
= =
3 3
and
2 5
|Ay | 1 2
y= =
|A| 3
4−5 1
= =− .
3 3

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Try

Let us try to solve the systems of linear equations below. Let us try to use
both methods that we have covered.
1.

−2x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 25

2x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 25
2x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 = 25

2.

7x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 21
3x2 − x3 = 5
−3x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 = −1

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