CHAPTER IV

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The study of the historical background of people of

a region is necessary in order to understand its present

character in a proper perspective. Such a study as

encompassing the whole of Nagaland from social geographic

point of view becomes rather more essential, and in a \*ay

imperative when it is to deal comprehensively with the

people made up of several tribal groups in their spatial

context. Nagaland is the homeland of more than a dozen

tribes, namely Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Chirr,

Kheinmungan, Konyak, Lotha, Makware, Phom, Rengma, Sangtam,

Sema, Tikhir and Zeliang. Collectively,these tribal

groups are called 'Naga’. This common name ’Naga* was not

in general use among themselves until recently. Gradually,

however, as they became more united under the same politi­

cal territory they began to use the name for themselves

more popularly. It is against this backdrop that the present

chapter is devoted to the treatment of people in the

historical perspective, first dealing with the word 'Naga'.

 75

4 .1 The Word 'Naga'*

There are sev era l views expressed by d iffe r e n t

sch o la rs as t o why the people liv in g in th is part o f the
h i l l s are c a lle d Nagas. Some w ritera are o f the opinion
th a t th e word 'Naga* orig in a ted from the Sanskrit word
’ NAG* meaning snake. T his, however, i s not ten able as
th e snake race o f the Vedic ch ro n icle s had nothing to do
w ith the Nagas who were not at a l l in the habit o f
worshipping snake even i n the olden days. Another v ersion
w ith respect t o th e o r ig in o f the word Naga i s th a t, the
word 'Naga* has come from the Bengali word 'NANGTA'
meaning la ck o f c lo t h . In the same vein , some w riters
opine th at th e word 'Naga* has evolved from the Sanskrit
word *NAGNA* which means naked. But th is view seems not
con v in cin g. For in Sanskrit lit e r a tu r e the inhabitants who
were non-Aryan tr ib e s liv in g in the mountains p a r tic u la r ly
i n the Himalayas and in the n orth-eastern areas o f India
have been known as K iratas.^ There i s yet another v ersion
accord in g t o which the word 'Naga* i s a deformed expression
o f the Hindustani word 'NANGA' meaning n u d ity. However,
t h is a lso i s im plausible as th ere i s hardly any mention
about the Hindustani speaking people coming in con tact with

1 C h atterjee, S.K . (1950)* 'K ira ta -J a n a -K riti, The Indo-

Mongoloids * T heir C ontribution t o the H istory and Culture
o f I n d ia ', Journal o f Koval A s ia tic S ociety o f Bengal.
V o l. XVI, No.2, Calcutta, p . 22.
 76

p
th e Nagas In th e olden days so as to give them a name.

The explan ation s given above to th e e f f e c t o f the

o r ig in o f the word *Naga' are assumptions and th e re fo re ,
cannot be taken f o r gran ted. The most p la u sib le theory as
to the o r ig in o f the word 'Naga* seems to be the one which
has Burmese connection s. As the Nagas had migrated to
t h e ir p resen t t e r r it o r y through Burma, probably i t was the
Burmese who gave them the name. I t was the tr a d it io n of
th e Nagas f o r both men and women to have t h e ir e a rs pierced
f o r e a r d eco ratio n . The Burmese c a lle d th a t group of
p eop le, having holes in ears as *NAKA’ meaning pierced
e a r s , and the a n g lic ise d word fo r *NAKA’ became Naga,**3 This
can be fu rth e r supported l o g i c a l l y . The B r itis h e r s fir st
came in to contact with the Burmese in 1795 and with the
Nagas in 1832. I t i s , th e refo re obvious th a t i t was the
Burmese who gave the inform ation to the B r it is h exp lo rers
about the 'Naka' group whose movement took p lace through
Burma while m igratin g to t h e i r p resen t h i l l country. Since
th en , the a n g lic ise d word 'NAGA* has been in u se in a l l the
II
an th ro p o lo g ical books and o f f i c i a l re c o rd s.

Ghosh, B .B . (1982) j H istory o f Nagaland. S . Chand and

Company L td ., Ham Nagar, New D elh i, p . 17.
3 Shimray, R.R. (1985)« O rigin and Culture o f Naga.
Published by Mrs. Pamleiphi Shimray, New D elh i,p p . 41-42.
^ I b id . , p . 41.
 77

4 .2 Origin o f the Nagas*

Despite the a v a ila b ility o f p a leolith ic tools and

the legends, the origin o f Nagas is shrouded in obscurity.
This is primarily due to the paucity o f written records or
chronicles. As to the origin there are, apart from
scholars * views many legends and mythological stories that
are in prevalence among the d iffe re n t Naga communities.
Though lacking in authenticity, these legends throw at
lea st some ligh t on th eir origin and migration to their
present abode. Here i t w ill be worthwhile to mention some
o f those legends.

The Aos hold the view in accordance with th eir old

legends that they originated from a group o f stones.
Sim ilarly, the Konyaks * trad ition has i t that th eir ances­
tors csune out from stones along with the progenitors of
other tr ib a l groups. The Angamis too say that they are the
descendants of those who emerged from the bowels o f the
earth in the south o f th eir present habitat, In the same
way, the tradition o f the Chakhesangs, Sernas, Rengmas and
Lothas points that th eir ancestors came out o f stones in a
place known as Khezakenoma (located in southern part of
Nagaland). These tradition al stories are no doubt based on
superstitions and religious b e lie fs and hence cannot be
considered authentic. However, a close study o f these

" Hutton, J.H. ( 1969)* The Angaml Nagas. Oxford University

Press, Bombay, p . 6 .
 78

s ca tte re d views reveals th at these Naga tr ib e s are not

autochthonous to Nagaland but moved in to t h e ir present habi­
t a t from the south a ft e r coming from th e Burma s id e . Besides
th ese legends, th ere are views expressed by d iffe r e n t
sch ola rs regarding the o r ig in and m igration o f the Magas who
belon g to the Indo-Mongoloid race

On the ba sis o f t h e ir a f f i n i t i e s w ith the tr ib e s of

sou th -east Asian cou n tries, sch ola rs have con jectu red that
th e Nagas migrated from those p la c e s . They are o f the
o p in ion That o r ig in a lly the Nagas came from Central Asia,
where they were known as the non-Chinese Chinang Tribes.^
From there they f i r s t moved towards the north-west border o f
China, many cen tu ries b efore the C hristian Era. Later on,
th ese tr ib e s spread over to China, Indonesia, P h ilip p in es,
Bhutan, Burma and Nagaland.
8 Also according to Smith, the
s o c ia l customs and cultu re o f the Nagas bear resemblance to
th ose o f Dyaks and Koyans - the t r i b a l people o f Indonesia
Q
and the P h ilip p in e s. Furthermore, he b e lie v e s that the
Nagas belong to the same b lood which i s found in th e people
o f Burma, Sikkim, Bhutan and oth er h il ly areas o f n orth-east

^ Elwin, V. (1 9 6 l)i Nagaland. Research Department M v is o r 's

S e c re ta r ia t, S h illon g , p . 2.
7
1 Holcombe, W.A. (1964)i E xploration Survey In the Naga
H i l l s . Oxford U niversity P ress, London, p . 4 .
® White, J .C . (1971)* Sikkim and Bhutan. Vivek Publishing
House, D elh i, p . 7 .
^ Smith, w.C, (1925)* ik) Naga Tribes o f Assam. Oxford
U niversity P ress, London, p p . 135-160.
 79

In d ia . Thus, from the preceding we can conclude th at the

Nagas are, by no means the o r ig in a l people o f Nagaland.
The hypothesis th a t the Nagas' ancient abode was near the
sea o r must have come from the sea coast i s a lso strength­
ened by the l i f e s t y le o f the Nagas and the ornaments such
as conch s h e lls used by the Nagas in the v illa g e s .A ls o the
lon g war-drums hewn out o f huge lo g s and which were used
by the Nagas in olden days g re a tly take the shape o f the
canoes, popularly used by the isla n d ers o f Indonesia and
P h ilip p in e s . The use o f a l l th ese things - marine a r t ic le s
and canoe shaped log-drums in d ica te s that these people were
once liv in g near the sea .

4 .3 Nagas in the H isto rica l P ersp ectiv e;

H istory o f the Nagas may be broadly p eriod ised in to

th ree p a rts; v i z . ( i ) Process o f peopling i n Nagaland. This
r e fe r s to the ancient period th at covers th e m igration of
Nagas and t h e ir occu pation o f the present t e r r i t o r y ,
( i i ) Middle p eriod and ( i i i ) Modern p e rio d .

4 .3 .1 Process o f Peopling in Nagaland* Though t h e ir hoary

past has sunk in to o b liv io n , i t i s probable th at the Nagas
w ith the a llie d tr ib e s lik e Karen, Kachin, Singpho, Chin,
Shan, e t c . came towards Burma from north-w estern China.
Leaving behind the a llie d tr ib e s in Burma, d iffe r e n t Naga

10 Asoso Yonuo (1974)* The K lsing Nagas. Vivek Publishing

House, D elh i, p . 38.
 80

t r ib e s continued t h e ir movement towards Nagaland a ft e r cros­

s in g the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin Rivers o f Burma. And as

the weight o f t h e ir t r a d it io n points outt most o f the Naga

t r ib e s entered Nagaland from the south at d iffe r e n t times

and in d iffe re n t waves. Their date o f occupation of the

present h abitat cannot be determined with c ertain ty fo r lack

o f recorded h isto ry . Yet, some scholars do agree on the

poin t that t h e ir migration to Nagaland probably took place in

11
the e a rly part o f 12th century.

The f i r s t wave o f migrants was o f the Angamis,Sernas,

Rengmas, Lothas, Chakhesangs, e tc . who entered Nagaland from

the south through the mountain frin g e s touching the v a lle y of

Manipur, As the tra d itio n goes these trib e s moved northward

from the p lain s o f Manipur and reached Mekruma (located in

northern p art o f Manipur). From Mekruma they advanced

fu rth e r towards the north and reached Khezakenoma. It is from

Khezakenoma that the d iffe r e n t t r ib e s seem to have radiated to

d iffe r e n t d irection s at d iffe r e n t tim es. F ir s t , the Lothas

moved northwardly and a ft e r h a ltin g at some places in between,

reached Kohima+ where they stayed f o r sometime. From Kohima

^ Ghosh, B.B. (1982)* History o f Nagaland, op. c l t . , p. 59.

12 P h ilip , P .T . (i9 6 0 )* The Growth o f Baptist Church in

Nagaland. C h ristian L ite ra tu re Centre, Gauhat1 ,pp.36-37.

+ The word 'Kohima* i s s a id to have origin ated from Lotha

word Khayima meaning 'un coun table'. For Lothas increased
in number during t h e ir stay there and hence they named the
place Khayima which la t e r changed in to Kohima.
 81

they went fu rth e r northward u n t il they reached Wokha, and i t

i s from Wokha th at they dispersed in to d iffe r e n t d ir e ctio n s
and f i n a ll y s e t t le d in t h e ir present area around Wokha. Next,
the Rengmas proceeded northward as fa r as Tserainyu,the t r ib a l
headquarter o f the main group o f Rengmas and established
themselves th e r e . A group o f Rengmas however, broke away
from the main group and went t o the p la in s . Now they liv e in
ftengraa area between Kaliani and Dhansiri Rivers in Mlkir
H ills (Assam).+ The Angamis moved northwestward to Kohima
and from th ere spread to north, east and w est, and occupied
t h e i r present area. Without moving very fa r from Khezakenoraa,
th e Chakhesangs spread to the north, n orth -ea st and east .Their
t e r r i t o r y f a l l s in Phek D is t r ic t and thus they occupy the
southeastern part o f the State bordering on the Manipur S t a te .
The Sernas to o took a n orth-east route and reached Sumi
V illa g e .++ They s e tt le d there f o r sometime, but as the p ress­
ure on them mounted from other t r i b a l groups such as Angami
and Chakhesang they moved fu rth er northward along the Doyang
V alley and reached t h e ir present occupied t e r r it o r y o f
Zunheboto D is t r i c t . While most o f the t r i b a l groups went
northward v ia Khezakenoma, i t seems th a t, the Zeliangs took a
south-w est route from Mao area and occupied the south-western
p art o f the S ta te .

+ P rio r to the reorgan isation o f States in 1956, i t was known

as Rengma H ills . A fter th a t i t was renamed as North Cachar
and Mikir H i ll s . From 1978 i t i s known as Karbi Anglong.
++ I t i s in Ohakhesang Area in th e southern part o f the S t a te .
 82

In tile second wave o f in m igration were th e Aos,

Change, Kheinmungans, Sangtams, Yimchungers, e t c . It is
b e lie v ed th at they migrated from Thangdut (near the
Chindwin K iver in Burma) by d iffe r e n t routes and at d i f f -
e re n t tim e s. Though the exact m igration route followed
by the Aos i s not known, from the t e l l - t a l e evidence it
i s conjectured th a t they entered Nagaland through Manipur^4
From Manipur they moved northward and a f t e r p a ssin g
through the areas now inhabited by the Chakhesangs,
Yimchungers and Sangtams reached Chungliyimti which i s
lo c a te d in Sangtara inhabited a r e a . Indeed, i t was there
th a t the Aos attain e d a g re a t achievement in the reform ation
o f t h e ir so c io - c u ltu r a l h e ritag e and p o lit y . A fter stay in g
a t Chungliyimti f o r a co n sid erab le period o f tim e they moved
westward and founded the Soyim V illa g e .** I t was from Soyim
V illa g e th at they seemed to have spread in to d iffe r e n t
d ir e c tio n s and occupied t h e ir p resen t area which i s in the
mid-western p a rt o f the S t a t e . The oth er t r i b a l groups such
as Chang, Kheinmungan, Yimchunger and Sangtam, in the
Tuensang D i s t r i c t , however, seem to have pen etrated in to
t h e i r p resen t occupied areas d ir e c t ly from the e a s t . Except

Alemchiba, M. (1970)* A B r ie f H isto r ic a l Account o f

Nagaland. Naga I n stitu te o f C ulture, Kohiraa, p . 21.
14 Ghosh, B.B. (1982)* c i t . , p . 48.
* I t i s now known as Ungpna V illa g e , lo cated a t a d istan ce
o f about 5 kilom etres south o f Mokokchung Town.
 83

Sangtams who moved westward and s e tt le d In the Central part

o f the S tate, others d id n ot d r i f t away much from th e ir
p o in t o f entry in to th is lan d. ^ As t h e ir t r a d it io n points
out the Konyaks and Phoms who in h a b it the north-w estern
p a rt o f the State a lso entered t h e ir present occupied land
from the n o rth -e a st.

From th e foregoin g i t i s evident that the d iffe r e n t

Naga tr ib e s migrated in to Nagaland at d iffe r e n t times and
from d iffe r e n t d ir e c t io n s . A fter reaching Nagaland they
began to in h ab it the land each carving out i t s own te r r ito r y
w ith in the con fin es o f h i l l y ranges and r iv e r b a s in s . At the
moment, the r e la t iv e -s p a t ia l p o s it io n o f th e ir t e r r it o r ie s
in the State stands more o r le ss as fo llo w s . The northernmost
p o r tio n o f th e State i s occupied by the Konyaks and the Phoms.
Ju st below the Konyaks are the Aos in h a b itin g the north­
w estern s id e o f the S ta te. Further below, on the south o f
th e Aos are the Lot has occupying the mid-western part o f
Nagaland. Below the hengma t e r r it o r y are th e Angamis who
occupy the south-w estern part o f the S ta te . On th e north
-w est o f the Angamis are the western Sernas, and on the south
-w est o f the Angamis are the Zeliangs and on t h e i r east are
th e Chakhesangs who occupy the sou th -eastern p o rtio n o f the
S ta te . In the m id-eastern part o f th e State i s the
Kheinmungan t e r r it o r y which is bounded on the south by the

^ Ghosh, B.B. (1981)* G azetteer o f India. Nagaland. Tuensana

D is t r i c t . Kohima, pp. 24-25.
 84

Chirrs, Tikhirs and Makwares, on the west by the Yimchungers

and on the north by the Konyaks, Ylmchungers are on the
west o f the Kheinraungans, and on th eir north are the Change.
The main group o f the Sernas is centrally situated. They are
flanked by the Aos and Sangtams on the north, Lothas on the
west. Angamis and Chakhesangs on the south and the
Ylmchungers on the east. On the north o f the Sernas are the
Sangtams surrounded by the Aos in the north and by the
Changs in the east. The three minor tr ib a l groupsj v iz.
Chirr, Makware and Tikhir are liv in g in the southern part o f
the Kheinraungan te rrito ry .

The migrational pattern o f the Nagas, irrespective

o f the trib a l groups, was invariably a movement from one
place to another u n til they fin a lly reached th eir present
t e r r it o r ie s . No concrete proof can be furnished as to why
th e ir wanderings took place. However, certain factors which
might have impelled them to do so can be taken into conside­
ra tion . The f i r s t may be ascribed to the adventurous tra it
o f the Nagas who by nature are adventure loving people.
Possibly, i t was th eir zeal fo r further exploration of more
lands which activated them to move from one place to another.
The infighting among the tr ib a l groups might have been
another factor which forced the weaker groups to migrate to
other places. The third fa ctor which is fa r from the least
was the economic one which might have urged the people to
move in search o f better and more fe r t ile lands . Their
dispersion into differen t directions on reaching th eir
 85

present territory can also be attributed to the aoove men­

tioned factors. Particularly, the entry from the south

might have been forced upon due to the environmental barr­

ier in the form of high hill ranges which they faced on the

eastern part of Nagaland. These ranges remain not only

covered with thick forests and vegetation but there is also

snowfall in these ranges during winter season. Finding

these physical barriers difficult to cross,the oncoming

tribes made a digression and entered from the south. Apart

from the obstacles imposed by the environment, some are of

the view that there were threats from the earlier settlers

in the north and north-eastern, and hence the southern

detour became imperative for the majority of the tribal

groups, however, it requires further research to substan­

tiate this view.

4.3.2 Middle Period* The middle period is referred here to

the time from when the different Naga tribes settled in this

land to the date of formation of the district of Naga Hills

under Ass am This was a period, particularly the early

part when the Nagas plunged into savagery characterised by

inter-tribal as well as inter-village feuds. Independently

they lived in their 'Village-States * and as such they

never managed to establish a single sovereign State for the

16 Ghosh, B.B
(1982)* History of Nagaland, op. cit., pp.6 1 -6 2 .
 86

governance o f a ll the Nagas. The absence o f law enforcing

authority or anything else approximating i t , under the
control o f one king or chieftan gave rise to the perpetua­
tio n o f head hunting practice and lawlessness. As a
resu lt, they continued to liv e in th eir own way in the
small sovereign Village-States u n til they were absorbed
in to the fo ld o f British India Governments * administration.

Living in such a situation surcharged with high-

voltage tension, Nagas could hardly find any scope to have
s o c ia l interaction particularly among those who were
constantly at loggerheads with one another. This social
segregation from one another because o f rivalry and hosti­
l i t y was accentuated by the very nature of formidable
physical terrain . It conditioned the people to remain in
is o la tio n from one another. However, when such a social
environment prevailed among the Nagas some Naga tribes
particu larly in the western part o f Nagaland came in contact
with the people liv in g in the plains o f Assam and later on
with the Britishers who gradually extended th eir sway over
the Nagas. Here, i t w ill be worthwhile to discuss the
relations that the Nagas had with the plains people as well
as the Britishers and their impact on the l i f e o f the Nagas.

4 .3 .2 .1 Relationship o f Nagas with Ahoms i It was only

a fte r the establishment o f Ahom kingdom in the 13th century
 87

1 7
i n A s s a m t h a t t h e N a g a s c a m e i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e A h o r a s .

T h e i r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e A h o m s w a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a

r a t h e r c u r i o u s b l e n d o f h o s t i l i t y a n d f r i e n d l i n e s s . T h e

A h o m s h a v i n g c o m e t o n o r t h - e a s t e r n A s s a m t h r o u g h t h e

P a t k a i R a n g e a n d N o r t h - E a s t e r n F r o n t i e r A g e n c y ( A r u n a c h a l

P r a d e s h ) s p r e a d o v e r t h e p l a i n s o f t h e B r a h m a p u t r a V a l l e y .

A f t e r t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e i r p o w e r i n A s s a m i n 1 2 2 6 ,

S u k a p h a , t h e f i r s t A h o m k i n g , w a n t e d t o c o n q u e r t h e n e i g h -

1 8
b o u r i n g a r e a s a n d a t t a c k e d s o m e N a g a v i l l a g e s . T h i s r e d

t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e n m i t y b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p e o p l e s . I n

r e t a l i a t i o n t h e N a g a s o f t e n c a r r i e d o u t d e p r e d a t i o n s o n

t h e p l a i n s . E a c h r a i d w a s , h o w e v e r , f o l l o w e d b y p u n i t i v e

e x p e d i t i o n s f r o m t h e p l a i n s . I n c o u r s e o f t i m e , t h e A h o m s

s u c c e e d e d i n e x e r c i s i n g t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r s o m e o f t h e N a g a

t r i b e s . B y t h e e n d o f t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y t h e y h a d e s t a b l i s h e d

t h e i r a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e N a g a t r i b e s n a m e l y , K o n y a k , A o a n d

L o t h a w h o w e r e l i v i n g w i t h i n t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e A h o m

k i n g d o m . T h e N a g a s w e r e m a d e t o p a y t r i b u t e t o t h e A h o m

k i n g i n t h e f o r m o f s l a v e s , e l e p h a n t t u s k s , s p e a r s , h a n d -

w o v e n c l o t h a n d c o t t o n a s a t o k e n o f t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e . T h e

A h o m s i n r e t u r n g r a n t e d e x e m p t i o n t o t h e N a g a s f r o m r e n t

o v e r t h e l a n d s a n d t h e a r e a s m e a n t f o r f i s h i n g .

^ H o r a m , M . ( 1 9 7 8 ) * N a g a P o l i t y . B .r t . P u b l i s h i n g C o r p o r a ­

t i o n , D e l h i , p . 5 .

1 8 D e v i , L . ( 1 9 6 8 ) * A h o m - T r i b a l R e l a t i o n . G a u h a t i , p p . 1 5 - 2 0 .

1 9 H o r a m , M . ( 1 9 7 8 ) * N a g a P o l i t y . 33 . p . 7 .
 88

Though the r e la tio n between Nagas and Ahorns was

m ostly dominated by raids r e s u ltin g in p u n itive expedi­
t i o n s , there were also some s o r t o f understanding between
them. Therefore, t h e ir enmity was not permanent but
sh o rt liv e d . The Ahoms were s a t is fie d with the Nagas'
acceptance o f t h e ir supremacy and did not in te r fe r e in
t h e ir in te rn a l a f f a i r s . nven f a c i l i t i e s were extended to
th e Nagas f o r marketing in the p la in s . This congenial
r e la t io n between these two peoples was, however, lim ited
t o economic aspect only and did not culminate in matrimo­
n ia l a llia n c e so as to cement t h e ir s o c ia l in tercou rse .But
n ev erth eless, the people o f th e p la in s l e f t a fa r reaching
impact on the l i f e o f the Nagas. The most remarkable one
i s evidenced in the use o f Assamese language, though in a
broken form by the Nagas as t h e ir common medium o f
communication t i l l today, fu rth e r, i t could be mentioned
th a t though the r e la tio n between the Nagas and the Ahoms
was e s s e n tia lly marked by c o n f l i c t s , i t neverth eless in t r o ­
duced the Nagas to th e ir f i r s t glimpse o f a w ider
c iv iliz a tio n .

4 .3 .2 .2 Anglo-Naga Relations* The process o f Nagas'

coming in to con tact with the B ritish ers and u ltim ately
t h e i r subjugation by the l a t t e r was somewhat a long one.
The contact took p lace as a r e s u lt o f a s e r ie s o f explora­
tio n s made by the B ritish ers mainly to fin d out a regu lar
communication w ith Manipur through the Naga inhabited h illy
 eg

a rea s. I t was a lso motivated by a p o lic y on the part of

th e B ritish ers to bear down the aggressions o f the Nagas
in t o the dominion o f the B r itis h i n Assam.

A fter having completed the c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e ir

ru le in Upper Assam in 1828, a growing need o f communica­
t i o n with Manipur through Naga H ills im pelled th e B ritish
t o conduct exp loratory exp ed ition s in to the h i l l s . 20 It
was in 1832 th a t the f i r s t exp loratory ex p ed ition under
th e command o f Captain Jenkins aixi Captain Pemberton was
s e t out from Manipur to Assam through the Naga H ills with
21
a stron g f o r c e . The movement o f n o n -trib a ls through
t h e i r homeland g re a tly annoyed the Nagas, and as such they
r e s is t e d th e ex p ed ition party with strong o p p o s itio n . In
th e fo llo w in g year, Gambhir Singh, rtaja o f Manipur
accompanied by Lieutenant Gordon marched through the h i l l s
f o r th e purpose o f fu rth er ex p lora tion o f the h i l l s . 22
However, the march was not easy, as a stron g Naga fo rce
was con stitu ted t o oppose and w ithold the advance. During
t h is p eriod the Nagas not only opposed the advance o f
exp loratory party but they themselves were a lso in the
h ab it o f ra id in g v illa g e s in North Cachar, This prompted

Bareh, H. (1970)* Gazetteer o f India. Nagaland. Kohlma

D i s t r i c t . Kohima, p . 25.
21 &lwin, V. (1969)* The Nagas in the Nineteenth Century.
Oxford U niversity P ress, London, p . 114.
22 A llen , B.C. (1981)* Naaa H ills and Manicur. Gian
P u b lica tio n s, D elh i, p . 1 1 .
 90

the B ritish to despatch m ilitary ejqpeditions to the h ills

to give pressure upon the perpetrators.

Between 1835 and 1850, the British led no less

than ten military expeditions to protect the plains of
Assam from the incursions o f the Nagas.
2^5 But the desi­
red result was not obtained, the raids continued to be
made by the Nagas into the B ritish te r rito ry . So,in 1P51
the British rea lisin g that punitive expeditions to the
h ills were fu t ile and the e ffo r t was not worth the trouble
and hardship to which soldiers and o ffic e r s were put,
decided upon pursuing a cautious policy o f non-interference
in th e ir dealing with the Nagas. Accordingly, fo r about a
decade the B ritish followed a Laissez Faire p olicy towards
Naga H ills. 24 Later, however, this policy o f non
-interference proved a fa ilu re . The Nagas who were happy
over the arrangement resumed th eir plundering a c tiv ity .
The people in the plains o f Assam began to doubt the
c r e d ib ility and capacity o f the British in safeguarding
th e ir lives and property. Even the weaker Naga villages
themselves began to seek the protection o f the British from
the raids of the more powerful Naga v illa g e s. So, in view

23 Ib id ., pp. 11-14.

^ Singh Chib, Sukhadev (1980)* This Beautiful India.

Nagaland. Light and Life Publishers, New Delhi,
pp. 10-11.
 91

o f a l l th ese happenings and. p re ssu res , i n 1862 th e then

Commissioner o f Assam recommended t o th e Lieu ten an t

Governor t o abandon the p o lic y o f n o n -in te r fe r e n c e and

adopt p r a c t ic a l as w e ll as e f f e c t i v e measures t o c o n tr o l
25
th e Nagas.

4 .3 .2 .3 Form ation o f th e Naga H i l l s D i s t r i c t * In pursu­

ance o f th e d e c is io n taken by th e B r it is h Government of

In d ia on th e recommendation o f th e Lieu ten an t Governor

o f Assam, a new d i s t r i c t o f th e country in h a b ite d by the

Nagas c a lle d Naga H ills D i s t r i c t was formed i n 1866

Samaguting (Modern Chumkedima) was made th e Deputy

Com m issioner ’s Headquarters and Lieu ten an t John Gregory

became i t s f i r s t Deputy Commissioner. The Government

how ever, g ra d u a lly began to f e e l t h a t Samaguting was to o

f a r from th e h eart o f th e h i l l s t o ca rry out a d m in istra ­

t io n e f fe c t iv e ly . T h e re fo re , in 1876 th e D i s t r i c t Head­

q u a rte rs was s h ift e d to Wokfaa (L oth a a re a ) f o r adminis­

t r a t i v e convenience and a ls o to check th e a c t i v i t i e s of

Lotha-Nagas who not on ly used t o a tta c k th e B r it is h

su rvey p a rty but a ls o proved them selves a menace t o the

t e a gardeners i n Upper Assam. ' Two years l a t e r , the

A lle n , B.C. (19 81 )* Naga H i l l s and Manipur, o p . c l t ..

p p . lb -1 7 .

26 Bareh. H. (19 70 )* G a ze tte e r o f In d ia . Nagaland, o p . c j t ..

p p . 34-35.
27 Ghosh, B.B. (1979)* G a ze tte e r o f In d ia . Nagaland.wokha
D i s t r i c t . Kohima, pp. 22-23.
 92

headquarters o f the d is t r ic t was f i n a l l y tra n sfe rre d to

Kohima which l i e s on the summit o f a rid ge with great

panoramic view s. I t i s now the c a p ita l o f the State of

Nagaland.

4 .3 .3 Modern Period* The e a rly p art o f the modern

p eriod which commences from the establishment o f District

Headquarters at Kohima was marked by the a sse rtio n o f the

Nagas o f t h e ir rig h t to be independent and the prevalence

o f i n t e r - t r i b a l as w e ll as in t e r -v illa g e feuds in the

Naga so ciety . With the advent o f the B r itis h to the hills,

the h o s t ilit y o f the Nagas towards them got more heightened

which resulted in th e ir making the la s t daring attempt to

oust the a lie n people from t h e i r t e r r it o r y . However,

t h e i r attempt met w ith a d efeat at the hands o f the b e tte r

organised and equipped B r it is h s o ld ie r s . Thenceforth, the

B r it is h acted upon t h e ir p o lic y to consolidate t h e ir

auth ority over the occupied areas and at the same time

e f f o r t s were made to annex more t e r r i t o r i e s .

The occupation o f Wokha and Kohima by the B ritis h

h igh ly in fu ria te d the Nagas and made them a l l the more

h o s t ile . They began to equip themselves w ith firearm s,

sp ears, daos, e tc . to fig h t the B r it is h . On hearing th is

la r g e -s c a le preparation by the Angami-Nagas, Mr. Damant,the

then Deputy Commissioner, p erson ally went to Khonoma

V illa g e with an escort o f eighty men to control the

s it u a t io n . However, when he entered the v i l l a g e he was shot

 93

dead and the men who accompanied him fle d away. This embol­
dened the Angami-Nagas and attacked the B r itis h post at
Kohima. A f i e r c e fig h tin g ensued u n t il at la s t the retrea t
o f the Nagas from th e b a ttle without being able to withstand
th e heavy fo r c e o f the B r itis h . This setback su ffe re d by
th e Angami-Nagas in t h e ir most desperate bid to d rive away
th e B r itis h from t h e ir land marked th e end o f serious
tro u b le and h o s t i l i t y in the Naga H i l l s .28 A fter th e defeat
o f the Angami-Nagas in 1859# the B r itis h in conform ity with
t h e i r p o lic y began to con solid a te t h e ir au th ority over the
areas already occupied while sim ultaneously acquiring

unoccupied Naga t e r r i t o r y . The B r itis h soon established

t h e i r co n tro l over Mokokchung area and made Mokokchung a sub-
d iv is io n a l headquarters. By the f i r s t quarter o f th is
cen tu ry, the B r itis h had succeeded in bringing the major part
o f Nagaland in to the adm inistration o f Naga H ills D is t r i c t .
Now the o.ily Naga t r a c t th a t remained unoccupied and ou tside
th e o r b it o f the B r itis h adm in istration was the Tuensang
area (c o n s is tin g o f present Tuensang D is t r ic t and a major
p art o f Mon D i s t r i c t ) . However, through vigorou s e ffo r t s the
B r it is h could extend t h e ir in flu en ce to the Tuensang area by
1 9 2 2 .^ In 1951 a separate su b d iv ision o f Tuensang was formed

28 Shakespear, L.W. (1914)* H istory o f Upper Assam. Upper

Burma and North Pastern F r o n tie r . Oxford U niversity Press,
London, p . 225.
Robert Held (1948)* H istory o f the F ron tier Areas Borde­
r in g on Assam from 1883-1941. S h illo n g , pp. 100-101.
 94

under the Naga H ills D is t r ic t , In 1952, however,the Tuen-

sang area was separated from Naga H ills D is t r ic t to form

a separate d iv is io n under the North Hast F ro n tie r Agency

(NEFA) to be governed by the Governor o f Assam on b e h a lf

30
o f the Central Government. I t remained so u n t il i t was

re tra n sfe rre d from NEFA to Naga H ills D is t r ic t in 1957.

The im position o f the B r it is h authority on the

Nagas was follow ed by innumerable changes in the simple

life o f the Nagas, Not only did i t usher in peace to the

feu d -rid d en Naga so ciety but i t also affec te d the socio

-economic l i f e o f the Nagas in a number o f ways. Side by

s id e with t h e ir e ffo r t s to gain control over the Naga

H i l l s , the B r it is h did introduce various measures to

u p l i f t the Naga so c ie ty . Assisted by the C h ristian M issio­

n a rie s , the Government introduced western system o f

education in Naga H ills D is t r ic t . This was p rim arily to

b rin g the Nagas in touch w ith modern c iv iliz a t io n and also

to use the educated class as a lin k between the r u le r and

the ru le d . According to 1901 census the lit e r a c y rate in

the d is t r ic t was 1.03 p er cent. In 1903-1904 there were

one secondary, 22 primary and 2 sp e c ia l sch ools. The number

o f students under in stru ctio n in 1890-1891, 1900-1901 and

1903-1904 was 297, 319 and 647 re sp e c tiv e ly .^ 1 Besides,

Ghosh, B.B. (1982)1 History o f Nagaland, o p . c l t ..p .I4 4 .

**1 asqso fonuo (1974): The h is in g Nagas. ££. c l t . . p . 110.

 95

e f f o r t s were made t o bring about improvement upon the road

c o n d itio n . During 1903-1904, seven ty-th ree m iles o f cart
road and about 473 miles o f b r id le paths were opened and
maintained in the d i s t r i c t . The ca rt road from Manipur
t o Dimapur through Kohima was a ls o widened. In the economic
sphere to o , sp ecta cu la r changes took p la ce , the most
n otable being the in tro d u ctio n o f currency system. Thus,
the Naga ’V illa g e -S ta t e s ' h ith erto under separate kings or
ch ie fta n s and h o s t ile to one another began to f e e l the
inroads made by modern c i v i l i z a t i o n under the ru le o f the
B ritis h e rs w ith a d iffe r e n t l i f e s t y l e ,

4 .3 .3 .1 Nagas During the World Wars* The two w orld wars

which the Nagas experienced during the B r itis h ru le had a
profound impact on the l i f e o f the Nagas. By t h e ir p a r ti­
c ip a t io n i n the wars they not on ly came in con ta ct with the
p eop le o f more c i v i l i z e d s o c ie t y but also imbibed new ideas
which played an important r o le in generating a sense o f
oneness among them. The h is t o r ic b a ttle in and around
Kohima between the invading Japanese and the a llie d fo rce s
g re a tly hustled the mental make-up as w e ll as the s o c io ­
economic l i f e o f the Nagas who s te a d fa s tly stood by the
B r it is h throughout the war.

During the f i r s t World War which ravaged the world

f o r about fou r years (1914-1918) the Nagas responded

32 I b i d . . p . 112
 96

remarkably to the British call of help and assistance. In

1916-1917 about two thousands Nagas were recruited for a

l a b o u r corp and sent to F r a n c e . ^ W h e n returned from the

Europ e a n battlefields they brought horrifying accounts of

t h e i r experiences there. They related how the great civili­

zed nations fought against one another w i t h great loss of

life and property, while they condemned the Nagas f o r their

traditional custom of head-hunting. Besides, the intercourse

of different Naga tribes i n France, far from their home

fostered i n them a feeling of friendship and a longing for

solidarity w h i c h manifested itself i n their verbal resolution

t o work for a Naga unity and harmony among t h e m s e l v e s . It was

i n this spirit that o n returning home i n 1918, the first

centres of social and political activities - the Naga Club -

34
was opened at Kohima and Mokokchung, Its objectives was to

voice the grievances of the people and also to promote their

interests. L a t e r on, this Naga Club acquired political

significance and stood against the British imperialism.

In the Second World War w h e n the Japanese entered

the Indian territory through Burma and heavy fighting took

place at Kohima the Nagas showed sponteneous loyalty to the

33 aiw in, V. (1961)* Nagaland, op . cit., p. 26.

34 Singh, Chandrika (1981)* Political Evolution of Nagaland.

Lancers Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 31-32.
 97

B r it is h and helped them. F ie ld Marshal S ir William S lim ,in

h is book ‘Defeat in to V ictory* has paid a fin e tr ib u te to
th e Nagas with the words as s 'The gallan t Nagas, whose
lo y a lt y never fa lt e r e d . They guided our cla im s, c o lle c te d
inform ation , ambushed enemy p a t r o ls , carried our su p p lies,
and brought in our wounded under the heaviest f i r e and then,
being the gentlemen they were, o fte n refused a l l payment’ . ^

The war w ith a l l i t s pathos and horrors had a devas­

t a t in g e f f e c t on the Nagas. When the f i e r c e fig h tin g was
fought in t h e ir land, many Naga v illa g e s were destroyed as
a r e s u lt o f bombardment and o th e r m ilita ry op era tion s. Many
v illa g e s around Kohima were evacuated, and th is d isp la ce ­
ment o f people had i t s own share o f d istu rb in g the s o c ia l
m ilieu o f the Nagas. For, when the resettlem ents were made
a ft e r the re tre a t o f the Japanese, many people found it
d i f f i c u l t t o s e t t le down to t h e ir old ways o f l i f e . Further,
epidem ics occurred i n many v illa g e s in the wake of the war.
Hundreds o f people died o f dysentery, typh oid, e n te ric fev er
36
and cholera in Manipur and southern Nagaland. However,the
war was follow ed by s ig n ific a n t changes in a l l spheres o f
l i f e o f the Nagas. The improvement and expansion o f communi­
c a tio n system broke the cen tu ries old is o la t io n o f the Nagas

55 Quoted in Elwin, V. (19 61 ) t Nagaland, op . c l t . . p. 26.

5^ Bareh, H. (1970) i Gazetteer o f India. Nagaland, pp. c l t . .

p . 53.
 98
from the outside world, and speeded up the so c ia l interac­
tio n among the Nagas. They began to conceive of themselves
as part of a la rg e r world which hitherto had been regarded
as something alien and separate. There was also an
upsurge of new patterns of business consciousness among the
people. Thus, the war not only detached the Nagas from
th e ir tra d itio n a l moorings but also widened the horizon of
th e ir so c ia l outlook and concept o f the world.

4 .3 .3 .2 Formation of the State of Nagaland* Prior to 1st

December, 1957 Naga H ills D istric t was one of the d is t r ic t s
of Assam. In 1957, Tuensang area was detached from NEFA
(now Arunachal Pradesh) by an act called the Naga H ills
Tuensang Area Act and amalgamated with Naga H ills D istrict
to form a new administrative unit known as Naga H ills
Tuensang Area (NHTA) under the Central Government.-'*7 Tuensang
became a d is t r ic t of i t , and the origin al Naga H ills D istrict
was divided into two d i s t r i c t s ; v iz . Kohima and Mokokchung.
Naga H ills Tuensang Area was administered through the
Governor of Assam acting as an agent of the President of
India. After the formation of NHTA the Naga Peoples ' Conven­
tion was held in May 1958. It appreciated the functioning of
the new arrangement and also selected a Drafting Committee to
draw up a d raft of sixteen-point memorandum for the creation
of a State to be called Nagaland within the Indian Union.

57 Census of India ( 1 9 7 1 Nagaland. Series 15. Part IX-A.

P • 1 e
In 1959 the ch a rter of demands was passed by the Naga
P eoples* Convention and was presented t o the Government. The
Late Prime M inister o f India, Pandit Nehru agreed to grant
autonomy to the Nagas w ithin the framework o f the Indian
Union and the Government decided to grant statehood to Nagas
w ith e f f e c t from December 1, 1963. On February, 18, 1961
under the p ro v is io n o f the Nagaland Regulation 1961,the Nag©
H ills Tuensang Area was designated as Nagaland, and as a
f i r s t step towards statehood an Interim Body was con stitu ted
t o fu n ctio n as the de fa c to L e g is la tiv e Assembly.^8 On the
1 s t December, 1963 Nagaland became the six te e n th State o f
the Indian Union. Ten years la t e r , in 1973 th e d is t r ic t s o f
Nagaland were reorganised by d iv id in g the d i s t r i c t s such as
Kohima in to Kohima and Phek, Mokokchung in to Mokokchung,
Zunheboto and Wokha, and Tuensang in to Tuensang and Mon,thus
r a is in g the number t o seven. Under each d i s t r i c t there are
su b d iv ision s which have fu rth er been subdivided in to adminis­
t r a t iv e u n its o r c ir c l e s (F ig . 8 ) . In a l l , th ere are now
s i x t y nine c i r c l e s i n the S tate and i t i s at the c i r c l e le v e l
th a t the major part o f the a n a ly tic a l work o f the present
study would be done.

Since the dawn o f Indian Independence, tremendous

changes have taken place in Nagaland in a l l spheres -
p o l i t i c a l , economic and s o c i a l . The changes have obviously

38 I b i d . , p 1.
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 100

become more pronounced a fte r i t s attainment o f sta teh ood .

With the ushering i n o f an era o f p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y ,
peace and t r a n q u ilit y , now the people enjoy s u ffic ie n t
op p ortu n ities f o r s e l f - e g r e s s i o n and p a r tic ip a t io n in the
p o l i t i c a l and development a c t i v i t i e s o f the S t a te . So fa r
th e State has had fiv e general e le c tio n s to the State
Assembly. S ig n ific a n t p rog ress, although not comparable
w ith the lead in g S ta tes, has a lso been made In the economic
f i e l d , mainly as a r e s u lt o f th e implementation o f the
su cce ssiv e Five Year Plans and oth er planned economic
programmes. The recent development o f tran sp ort network
p ie r c in g through the breasts o f the h il ly ranges has
in e v ita b ly brought marked changes upon the s o c ia l surface
o f Nagaland. S o c ia l in te r a c tio n has now become e a sie r not
on ly among the indigenous people but a lso between the Nagas
and the o u ts id e r s .