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unit 2

The document explains the differences between analog and digital signals, highlighting that analog signals are continuous while digital signals are discrete. It also discusses bandwidth and data rate, defining bandwidth as the maximum capacity of a communication link and data rate as the actual speed of data transmission. Additionally, it covers types of communication channels and formulas for calculating data rates in both noiseless and noisy channels.

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8 views

unit 2

The document explains the differences between analog and digital signals, highlighting that analog signals are continuous while digital signals are discrete. It also discusses bandwidth and data rate, defining bandwidth as the maximum capacity of a communication link and data rate as the actual speed of data transmission. Additionally, it covers types of communication channels and formulas for calculating data rates in both noiseless and noisy channels.

Uploaded by

meenasri025
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information (such as any audio or

video), usually through electric signals.

What Are Analog Signals?


These signals are continuous in both values and time .All signals that are natural or come
naturally are analog signals. Analog signals are used to represent sound, temperature, light
intensity etc.

What Are Digital Signals?


Digital signals are not continuous, but signals are discrete in value and time. These signals
are represented by binary numbers and consist of different voltage values. The digital
signals are used in digital instruments like calculators, computers, Telephones, etc.

Amplitude:Waves covering distance with respect to time


the greatest distance that a wave, especially a sound or radio wave, moves up and down.
Difference between Analog and Digital Signal

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Continuous signals Discrete signals

Represented by sine waves Represented by square waves

Human voice, natural sound, analog electronic Computers, optical drives, and other electronic
devices are a few examples devices

Continuous range of values Discontinuous values

Records sound waves as they are Converts into a binary waveform

Only used in analog devices Suited for digital electronics like computers, mobiles
and more

Data rate limit

Network bandwidth is a measurement indicating the maximum capacity of a wired or wireless


communications link to transmit data over a network connection in a given amount of time.
Bandwidth is represented in the number of bits, kilobits, megabits or gigabits that can be
transmitted in 1 second.

It describes data transfer rate not a measure of network speed.

The more bandwidth a data connection has, the more data it can send and receive at one time.

Types of Communication Channel

There are three types of communication channels in computer networking −

 Simplex channel − Signals can only be sent in one way using a simple communication
connection. As a result, the channel's complete bandwidth can be used during transmission.

 Half-duplex channel − A half-duplex communication channel can send signals in both


directions simultaneously, but only in one. It can be thought of as a simplex communication
channel with a switchable transmission direction.

 Full-duplex channel − A full-duplex communication link can simultaneously send signals in


both directions. Communication efficiency is considerably improved by using full-duplex
communication channels.

Data rate refers to the speed of data transfer through a channel. It is generally computed in bits per
second (bps). Higher data rates are expressed as Kbps ("Kilo" bits per second, i.e.1000 bps), Mbps
("Mega" bits per second, i.e.1000 Kbps), Gbps ("Giga" bits per second, i.e. 1000 Mbps) and Tbps
("Tera" bits per second, i.e. 1000 Gbps).
One of the main objectives of data communications is to increase the data rate. There are three
factors that determine the data rate of a channel:

 Bandwidth of the channel

 Number of levels of signals that are used

 Noise present in the channel

Difference between Bandwidth and Data Rate

Bandwidth Data Rate

It is the potential of carrier channels that It is the amount of data transmitted during a
can carry data. specified period over a network.

It is the difference between the range of


It is the speed of Data Transmission.
frequencies.

Normally it is measured in Hz or kHz or


It is normally measured in Mbps or MBps.
Mhz.

It refers to the maximum data transmission


It refers to the actual data transmission speed.
capacity of the channel.

It is a physical layer property in the OSI


While it is common in all layers.
Model.

It shows the capacity of the channel. It shows the present speed of data transmission.

It does not depend on the properties of the


While it gets affected by the sender or receiver.
sender or receiver.

Data rate can be calculated using two theoretical formulae:

 Nyquist Bit Rate – for noiseless channel

 Shannon’s Capacity – for noisy channel


1. Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate: r a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula
defines the theoretical maximum bit rate:

BitRate=2×Bandwidth×log2 L

Where, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to
represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.

 Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of the system.

Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed. Hence, the data rate is directly proportional
to the number of signal levels.

Examples:

Q1: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal
levels. What can be the maximum bit rate?

Sol1 : BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log2(2) = 6000bps (log2(x) = y and x = 2y)


log2(2
= 1
)
log2(
= 3
8)

Q2: We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many
signal levels do we need?

Sol2 :

265 kbps=265000 bps (1 kbps =1000 bps)

265000 = 2 * 20000 * log2(L)

log2(L) =265000 / 40000= 6.625

L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels

The amount of noise present is measured by the ratio of the signal power to the noise power, called
the SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio).

2. Noisy Channel Shannon Capacity: In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is
always noisy. Shannon capacity is used, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy
channel:

Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR) bits/sec


In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio,
and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second. Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it
cannot be changed. Hence, the channel capacity is directly proportional to the power of the signal,
as SNR = (Power of signal) / (power of noise).

The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in decibels (dB) given by the formula:

10 * log10(S/N)

So for example a signal-to-noise ratio of 1000 is commonly expressed as:

10 * log10(1000) = 30 dB.

Examples:

A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data
communication. The SNR is usually 3162. What will be the capacity for this channel?

Sol : C = 3000 * log2(1 + SNR) = 3000 * 11.62 = 34860 bps

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