OSI MODEL

Layers of OSI Model:-OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been
developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the year
1984. It is 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe.

Layers of OSI Model

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Layer 1- Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical
layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will
get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Data Bits in the Physical Layer

The Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the

bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note: 1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.
Layer 2- Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from
one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a
network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its
MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the
destination host will reply with its MAC address.

The Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can
be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of
the frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of
each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus; flow control coordinates the amount of data that
can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given time.
 Function of DLL

Note: 1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Layer 3- Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.

The Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
 addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Note: 1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
Layer 4- Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error
control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination
port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

The Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address
or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes
sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service

1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes

 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer.
In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a
packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.

Note: 1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.

2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.

Layer 5- Session Layer

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.

The Functions of the Session Layer

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the

two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note: 1. All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single
layer in the TCP/IP model as the “Application Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application
itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
Scenario
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data),
and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6- Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format
to transmit over the network.

The Functions of the Presentation Layer are

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
Layer 7- Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

The Functions of the Application Layer are

 Network Virtual Terminal

 FTAM- File transfer access and management
 Mail Services
 Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet
because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

OSI Model in a Nutshell

Information
Layer Form(Data
No Layer Name Responsibility Unit) Device

Helps in identifying the

Application client and
7 Message –
Layer synchronizing
communication.

6 Presentation Data from the Message –

Layer application layer is
extracted and
 Information
Layer Form(Data
No Layer Name Responsibility Unit) Device

manipulated in the
required format for
transmission.

Establishes
Connection,
Session
5 Maintenance, Ensures Message Gateway
Layer
Authentication, and
Ensures security.

Take Service from

Transport Network Layer and
4 Segment Firewall
Layer provide it to the
Application Layer.

Transmission of data
Network from one host to
3 Packet Router
Layer another, located in
different networks.

Data Link Node to Node Delivery

2 Frame Switch, Bridge
Layer of Message.

1 Physical Establishing Physical Bits Hub, Repeater,

 Information
Layer Form(Data
No Layer Name Responsibility Unit) Device

Connections between
Layer Modem, Cables
Devices.

Bandwidth
The range of frequencies that are used for transmitting a signal without being
substantially attenuated is called the bandwidth. It is calculated as the difference
between the highest and the lowest frequencies. It is expressed in Hertz (Hz).
For example, if the minimum frequency is 100 Hz and the maximum frequency is
1000 Hz, the bandwidth will be 900 Hz.
The bandwidth of a transmission medium is the frequency width of the medium
and is dependent upon its physical characteristics like thickness, material, length
etc. For example, the bandwidth of a coaxial cable is 750 MHz (Megahertz).
Bandwidth – Limited Signal
A signal is called bandwidth – limited or simply band-limited when the amplitude
of the spectrum goes to zero whenever its frequency crosses the allowable limits.
Thus, its Fourier transform is non-zero only for a finite frequency interval. A
band-limited signal is represented by a finite number of harmonics.
In most applications, an analog signal is sampled, converted to digital form on
which operations are performed, which is finally reconstructed to analog form.
For data communications, a signal, which is to be transmitted, has an infinite
number of terms in its Fourier transform. However, when this signal needs to be
transmitted through a channel of fixed bandwidth, band-limiting is required. It
can be observed that among the infinite Fourier components, only the first few
terms (harmonics) suffice to reconstruct the signal. So, if the bandwidth of the
channel permits these harmonics to be transmitted, then the original signal can
be reconstructed with sufficient accuracy.
Limiting the bandwidth of a signal will limit the data rate, even if the channel is
perfect with very less noise. A solution is to use coding schemes with different
voltage levels.
Transmission media?

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the

information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through
the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information
in the form of bits through LAN (Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fiber based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI (Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports
the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fiber optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types is wired media and wireless media. In
wired media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in
wireless media, signal characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth,
delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference
model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
 o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the
signals will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal
when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of some
unwanted signal.

Causes of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the
signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of
energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the
signal. This type of distortion is examined from different signals having
different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation
speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted
signal is added to it which creates the noise.

Classification of Transmission Media:

Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It
is also known as Bounded media.

Types of Guided media:

Twisted pair:

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each
other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5 KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the
number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise
interference.

Types of Twisted pair:1.Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the

categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: it is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.

o Category 2: It can support up to 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support up to 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support up to 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
 o Category 5: It can support up to 200Mbps.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire
that allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very
low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV
wire is usually a coaxial cable.
 o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to
each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of
non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer
conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI (Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single

signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fiber Optic
o Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are
used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fiber optics provides faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fiber optic cable:

Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:

o Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known
as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area
of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the fiber.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the
core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light
waves are transmitted through the fiber.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The
main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and
extra fiber protection.

Following are the advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:

 o Greater Bandwidth: The fiber optic cable provides more bandwidth as
compared copper. Therefore, the fiber optic carries more data as compared
to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fiber optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This
allows the fiber optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fiber optic cable carries the data at a longer distance
as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fiber optic cable is more reliable than the copper
cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause
obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fiber optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it
can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

Unguided Transmission

o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without

using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless
transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic
energy can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3 KHz to 1 kHz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any
receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile
cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the
focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave
transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the
range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to
another antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6

GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer
distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by
environmental conditions and antenna size.

Advantages of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave
transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any

malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using
microwave transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible
to weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as
rain, wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of
microwave transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known
height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more
flexibility than cable and fiber optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial

microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from
the center of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
 o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so
that it remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another
launch of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication
over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between
two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer
and cell phone resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun
rays will interfere with the infrared waves.

Data Link Layer

o In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4 th layer from the top and 2nd layer
from the bottom.
 o The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as
links, and in order to move the datagram from source to the destination,
the datagram must be moved across an individual link.
o The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram
across an individual link.
o The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged
across the nodes as well as the actions such as Error detection,
retransmission, flow control, and random access.
o The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.
o An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be
handled by different link layer protocols on different links in a path. For
example, the datagram is handled by Ethernet on the first link, PPP on the
second link.

Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer:

o Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each network
frame within a Link layer frame before the transmission across the link. A
frame consists of a data field in which network layer datagram is inserted
and a number of data fields. It specifies the structure of the frame as well
 as a channel access protocol by which frame is to be transmitted over the
link.
o Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, i.e.,
transmits the network layer datagram without any error. A reliable delivery
service is accomplished with transmissions and acknowledgements. A data
link layer mainly provides the reliable delivery service over the links as they
have higher error rates and they can be corrected locally, link at which an
error occurs rather than forcing to retransmit the data.
o Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than
it can process the frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can
overflow, and frames can get lost. To overcome this problem, the data link
layer uses the flow control to prevent the sending node on one side of the
link from overwhelming the receiving node on another side of the link.
o Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise.
Data Link Layer protocol provides a mechanism to detect one or more
errors. This is achieved by adding error detection bits in the frame and then
receiving node can perform an error check.
o Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except
that receiving node not only detects the errors but also determine where
the errors have occurred in the frame.
o Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can
transmit the data at the same time. In a Half-Duplex mode, only one node
can transmit the data at the same time.

Error Detection

When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not
guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data
transmitted by another device. An Error is a situation when the message received
at the receiver end is not identical to the message transmitted.
Types of Errors

Errors can be classified into two categories:

o Single-Bit Error
o Burst Error

Single-Bit Error:

The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit
is changed to 1.

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Full screen

Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For
example, Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for
1? S and for a single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1? S.

Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight
wires are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wires is noisy, then
single-bit is corrupted per byte.

Burst Error:

The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 are known as Burst
Error.

The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted
bit.

The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-
Bit.

Burst Errors are most likely to occur in Serial Data Transmission.

The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.
Error Detecting Techniques:
Error Detection, the receiver only needs to know that the received code word is
invalid; but in Error Correction the receiver needs to guess the Original code word
that is sent. In this way, error Correction is much more difficult than Error
Detection...

Let us take a look at the Structure of the encoder and decoder in the Error
Correction:

Figure: Structure of the Encoder and Decoder in the Error Correction

In order to detect or correct the errors, there is a need to send some extra bits
along with the data. These extra bits are commonly known as redundant bits.

The original data is divided into segments of k bits; it is referred to as data word.
When we add r redundant bits to each block in order to make the length
n=k+r then it is referred to as Code word.

There are two ways to handle the error correction:

1. Whenever an error discovered, the receiver can have the sender in order to
retransmit the entire data unit. This technique is known as the Backward
Error correction technique. This technique is simple and inexpensive in the
case of wired transmission like fiber optics; there is no expense in
retransmitting the data. In the case of wireless transmission, retransmission
costs too much thus forward error correction technique is used then.
 2. The receiver can use an error-correcting code that automatically contains
certain errors. This technique is known as the Forward Error Correction
technique.

In order to correct the errors, one has to know the exact position of the error. For
example, In case if we want to calculate a single-bit error, the error correction
code then mainly determines which one of seven bits is in the error.

In order to achieve this, we have to add some additional redundant bits.

Suppose r (as the redundant bits) and d indicates the total number of data bits. In
order to calculate the redundant bits(r), the given formula is used;

2r= d+r+1

Error correction is mainly done with the help of the Hamming code.

Hamming Code

It is a technique developed by R.W. hamming. This can be applied to data units of

any length. This code mainly uses the relationship between data and redundancy
bits.

The hamming code technique, which is an error-detection and error-correction

technique, was proposed by R.W. Hamming. Whenever a data packet is
transmitted over a network, there are possibilities that the data bits may get lost
or damaged during transmission.

Let's say you have received a 7-bit Hamming code which is 1011011.

First, let us talk about the redundant bits.

The redundant bits are some extra binary bits that are not part of the original
data, but they are generated & added to the original data bit. All this is done to
ensure that the data bits don't get damaged and if they do, we can recover them.

Now the question arises, how do we determine the number of redundant bits to
be added?
We use the formula, 2r >= m+r+1; where r = redundant bit & m = data bit.

From the formula we can make out that there are 4 data bits and 3 redundancy
bits, referring to the received 7-bit hamming code.

What is Parity Bit

To proceed further we need to know about parity bit, which is a bit appended to
the data bits which ensures that the total number of 1's are even (even parity) or
odd (odd parity).

While checking the parity, if the total number of 1's are odd then write the value
of parity bit P1(or P2 etc.) as 1 (which means the error is there ) and if it is even
then the value of parity bit is 0 (which means no error).

Hamming Code in Error Detection

As we go through the example, the first step is to identify the bit position of the
data & all the bit positions which are powers of 2 are marked as parity bits (e.g. 1,
2, 4, 8, etc.). The following image will help in visualizing the received hamming
code of 7 bits.

First, we need to detect whether there are any errors in this received hamming
code.

Step 1: For checking parity bit P1, use check one and skip one method, which
means, starting from P1 and then skip P2, take D3 then skip P4 then take D5, and
then skip D6 and take D7, this way we will have the following bits,

As we can observe the total number of bits is odd so we will write the value of
parity bit as P1 = 1. This means the error is there.
Step 2: Check for P2 but while checking for P2, we will use the check two and skip
two methods, which will give us the following data bits. But remember since we
are checking for P2, so we have to start our count from P2 (P1 should not be
considered).

As we can observe that the number of 1's are even, then we will write the value
of P2 = 0. This means there is no error.

Step 3: Check for P4 but while checking for P4, we will use the check four and
skip four methods, which will give us the following data bits. But remember since
we are checking for P4, so we have started our count from P4 (P1 & P2 should not
be considered).

As we can observe that the number of 1's is odd, then we will write the value
of P4 = 1. This means the error is there.

So, from the above parity analysis, P1 & P4 are not equal to 0, so we can clearly
say that the received hamming code has errors.

Hamming Code: Error Correction

Since we found that the received code has an error, so now we must correct
them. To correct the errors, use the following steps:

Now the error word E will be:

Now we have to determine the decimal value of this error word 101 which is 5 (22
*1 + 21 * 0 + 20 *1 = 5).

We get E = 5, which states that the error is in the fifth data bit. To correct it, just
invert the fifth data bit.
So the correct data will be:

Linear Block Codes

In the linear block codes, the parity bits and message bits have a linear
combination, which means that the resultant code word is the linear combination
of any two code words.
Let us consider some blocks of data, which contains k bits in each block. These
bits are mapped with the blocks which has n bits in each block. Here n is greater
than k. The transmitter adds redundant bits which are bits. The ratio k/n is
the code rate. It is denoted by r and the value of r is r < 1.
The bits added here are parity bits. Parity bits help in error detection and error
correction, and also in locating the data. In the data being transmitted, the left
most bits of the code word correspond to the message bits and the right most bits
of the code word correspond to the parity bits.
Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRCs)
Computer NetworkNetworkOperating System
The Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) is the most powerful method for Error-
Detection and Correction. It is given as a Kbit message and the transmitter
creates an (n – k) bit sequence called frame check sequence. The out coming
frame, including n bits, is precisely divisible by some fixed number. Modulo 2
Arithmetic is used in this binary addition with no carries, just like the XOR
operation.
Redundancy means delicacy. The redundancy bits used by CRC are changed by
splitting the data unit by a fixed divisor. The remainder is CRC.
Qualities of CRC
It should have accurately one less bit than the divisor.
 Joining it to the end of the data unit should create the resulting bit
sequence precisely divisible by the divisor.
CRC generator and checker
Process
 A string of n 0s is added to the data unit. The number n is one smaller
than the number of bits in the fixed divisor.
 The new data unit is divided by a divisor utilizing a procedure known
as binary division; the remainder appearing from the division is CRC.
 The CRC of n bits interpreted in phase 2 restores the added 0s at the
end of the data unit.
Example
Message D = 1010001101 (10 bits)
Predetermined P = 110101 (6 bits)
FCS R = to be calculated 5 bits
Hence, n = 15 K = 10 and (n – k) = 5
The message is generated through 25: accommodating 1010001101000
The product is divided by P.
The remainder is inserted to 25D to provide T = 101000110101110 that is sent.
Suppose that there are no errors, and the receiver gets T perfect. The received
frame is divided by P.
Because of no remainder, there are no errors.
Vertical Redundancy Check is also known as Parity Check. In this method, a
redundant bit also called parity bit is added to each data unit. This method
includes even parity and odd parity. Even parity means the total number of 1s in
data is to be even and odd parity means the total number of 1s in data is to be
odd.

Example –
If the source wants to transmit data unit 1100111 using even parity to the
destination. The source will have to pass through Even Parity Generator.

Even parity VRC

Parity generator will count number of 1s in data unit and will add parity bit. In
the above example, number of 1s in data unit is 5; parity generator appends a
parity bit 1 to this data unit making the total number of 1s even i.e. 6 which is
clear from above figure.
Data along with parity bit is then transmitted across the network. In this case,
11001111 will be transmitted. At the destination, this data is passed to parity
checker at the destination. The number of 1s in data is counted by parity
checker.
If the number of 1s counts out to be odd, e.g. 5 or 7 then destination will come
to know that there is some error in the data. The receiver then rejects such an
erroneous data unit.
Advantages:

 VRC can detect all single bit error.

 It can also detect burst errors but only in those cases where number of
bits changed is odd, i.e. 1, 3, 5, 7, .etc.
Disadvantages :
The major disadvantage of using this method for error detection is that it is not
able to detect burst error if the number of bits changed is even, i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8,
…….etc.

Example –
If the original data is 1100111. After adding VRC, data unit that will be
transmitted is 11001111. Suppose on the way 2 bits are 01011111. When this
data will reach the destination, parity checker will count number of 1s in data
and that comes out to be even i.e. 8. So, in this case, parity is not changed, it is
still even. Destination will assume that there is no error in data even though
data is erroneous.
 Erroneous data accepted by receiver with number of changed bits

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)/2-D Parity Check

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) is also known as 2-D parity check. In this
method, data which the user wants to send is organized into tables of rows and
columns. A block of bit is divided into table or matrix of rows and columns. In
order to detect an error, a redundant bit is added to the whole block and this
block is transmitted to receiver. The receiver uses this redundant row to detect
error. After checking the data for errors, receiver accepts the data and discards
the redundant row of bits.
Example:
If a block of 32 bits is to be transmitted, it is divided into matrix of four rows and
eight columns which as shown in the following figure:
 Figure: LRC

In this matrix of bits, a parity bit (odd or even) is calculated for each column. It
means 32 bits data plus 8 redundant bits are transmitted to receiver. Whenever
data reaches at the destination, receiver uses LRC to detect error in data.
Advantage:
LRC is used to detect burst errors.
Example: Suppose 32 bit data plus LRC that was being transmitted is hit by a burst
error of length 5 and some bits are corrupted as shown in the following figure:

Figure: Burst error & LRC

The LRC received by the destination does not match with newly corrupted LRC.
The destination comes to know that the data is erroneous, so it discards the data.
Disadvantage:
The main problem with LRC is that, it is not able to detect error if two bits in a
data unit are damaged and two bits in exactly the same position in other data unit
are also damaged.
Example: If data 110011 010101 is changed to 010010110100.

Figure: Two bits at same bit position damaged in 2 data units

In this example 1st and 6th bit in one data unit is changed. Also the 1st and 6th bit
in second unit is changed.
11

Checksums
This is a block code method where a checksum is created based on the data
values in the data blocks to be transmitted using some algorithm and appended
to the data. When the receiver gets this data, a new checksum is calculated and
compared with the existing checksum. A non-match indicates an error.
Error Detection by Checksums
For error detection by checksums, data is divided into fixed sized frames or
segments.
 Sender’s End − the sender adds the segments using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. It then complements the sum to get the
checksum and sends it along with the data frames.
 Receiver’s End − the receiver adds the incoming segments along with
the checksum using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum and
then complements it.
If the result is zero, the received frames are accepted; otherwise they are
discarded.
Example
Suppose that the sender wants to send 4 frames each of 8 bits, where the frames
are 11001100, 10101010, 11110000 and 11000011.
The sender adds the bits using 1s complement arithmetic. While adding two
numbers using 1s complement arithmetic, if there is a carry over, it is added to
the sum.
After adding all the 4 frames, the sender complements the sum to get the
checksum, 11010011, and sends it along with the data frames.
The receiver performs 1s complement arithmetic sum of all the frames including
the checksum. The result is complemented and found to be 0. Hence, the
receiver assumes that no error has occurred.

Data Link Layer Protocols

Data Link Layer protocols are generally responsible to simply ensure and confirm
that the bits and bytes that are received are identical to the bits and bytes being
transferred. It is basically a set of specifications that are used for implementation
of data link layer just above the physical layer of the Open System
Interconnections (OSI) Model.
Some Common Data Link Protocols:
There are various data link protocols that are required for Wide Area Network
(WAN) and modem connections. Logical Link Control (LLC) is a data link protocol
of Local Area Network (LAN). Some of data link protocols are given below:

1. Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC) –

SDLC is basically a communication protocol of computer. It usually supports
multipoint links even error recovery or error correction also. It is usually used
to carry SNA (Systems Network Architecture) traffic and is present precursor to
 HDLC. It is also designed and developed by IBM in 1975. It is also used to
connect all of the remote devices to mainframe computers at central locations
may be in point-to-point (one-to-one) or point-to-multipoint (one-to-many)
connections. It is also used to make sure that the data units should arrive
correctly and with right flow from one network point to next network point.

2. High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC) –

HDLC is basically a protocol that is now assumed to be an umbrella under
which many Wide Area protocols sit. It is also adopted as a part of X.25
network. It was originally created and developed by ISO in 1979. This protocol
is generally based on SDLC. It also provides best-effort unreliable service and
also reliable service. HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol that is applicable for
point-to-point and multipoint communications both.

3. Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) –

SLIP is generally an older protocol that is just used to add a framing byte at end
of IP packet. It is basically a data link control facility that is required for
transferring IP packets usually among Internet Service Providers (ISP) and a
home user over a dial-up link. It is an encapsulation of the TCP/IP especially
designed to work with over serial ports and several router connections simply
for communication. It is some limitations like it does not provide mechanisms
such as error correction or error detection.
4. Point to Point Protocol (PPP) –
PPP is a protocol that is basically used to provide same functionality as SLIP. It
is most robust protocol that is used to transport other types of packets also
along with IP Packets. It can also be required for dial-up and leased router-
router lines. It basically provides framing method to describe frames. It is a
character-oriented protocol that is also used for error detection. It is also used
to provide two protocols i.e. NCP and LCP. LCP is used for bringing lines up,
negotiation of options, bringing them down whereas NCP is used for
negotiating network-layer protocols. It is required for same serial interfaces
like that of HDLC.

5. Link Control Protocol (LCP) –

It was originally developed and created by IEEE 802.2. It is also used to provide
HDLC style services on LAN (Local Area Network). LCP is basically a PPP
 protocol that is used for establishing, configuring, testing, maintenance, and
ending or terminating links for transmission of data frames.

6. Link Access Procedure (LAP) –

LAP protocols are basically a data link layer protocols that are required for
framing and transferring data across point-to-point links. It also includes some
reliability service features. There are basically three types of LAP i.e. LAPB (Link
Access Procedure Balanced), LAPD (Link Access Procedure D-Channel), and
LAPF (Link Access Procedure Frame-Mode Bearer Services). It is actually
originated from IBM SDLC, which is being submitted by IBM to the ISP simply
for standardization.

7. Network Control Protocol (NCP) –

NCP was also an older protocol that was implemented by ARPANET. It basically
allows users to have access to use computers and some of the devices at
remote locations and also to transfer files among two or more computers. It is
generally a set of protocols that is forming a part of PPP. NCP is always
available for each and every higher-layer protocol that is supported by PPP.
NCP was replaced by TCP/IP in the 1980s.

Bridge in Computer Network – Types, Uses, Functions & Differences

The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect
multiple LANs to a larger LAN. In computer networks, we have multiple
networking devices such as bridges, hubs, routers, switches, etc.; each device has
its own specification and is used for a particular purpose. The bridge is a
networking device that connects the larger LAN networks with the group of
smaller LAN networks.
In this article, we are going to discuss everything about the bridge including what
exactly a bridge is, and the type of bridges we have in computer networks
including transparent bridges, source routing bridges, and translational bridges,
which will be followed by advantages and disadvantages of the bridge in
networking. Then how the bridge is different from the gateway and last we will
look into the applications and functions of the bridge in the network.
Bridge in Computer Network:
A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs
together with a larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network
aggregation is known as bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware device but
operates at the OSI model’s data link layer and is also known as a layer of two
switches.
The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and
determine whether to filter or forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer
networks is used to divide network connections into sections, now each section
has separate bandwidth and a separate collision domain. Here bridge is used to
improve network performance.

Types of Bridges:
There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:
1. Transparent bridge
2. Source routing bridge
3. Translational bridge

Transparent Bridge:

Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the network. This bridge
doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion of any station. The
prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward the data according
to the MAC address.

Source Routing Bridge:

Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM specifically for token
ring networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the data frames by the
source station to perform the routing operation so that once the frame is
forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.

Translational Bridge:

Translational bridges convert the received data from one networking system to
another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data between two different
types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data from a token ring to an
Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to connect both the
networking system and transmit data.
Advantages:
 Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two network
topologies together.
 It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.
 It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different
segments.
 Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into multiple
LAN segments.
 Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software except
the bridge itself.
 Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.
Disadvantages:
 Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.
 Slow in speed.
 Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC
address of the device on the network.
 As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual filtering of
data is not possible.
 During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic and
broadcast storms can be formed.
Uses of Bridge in Computer Network:
 Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate
multiple LANs together.
 On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to
accept or reject the data.
 In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of the
network.
 Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination address is
unavailable.
 It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.
 The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the MAC
address is available.
Functions of Bridges in the Network
 The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.
 To control the traffic in the network.
 It can interconnect two LANs with similar protocols.
 It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.
Network Layer Services- Packetizing, Routing and Forwarding
The network Layer is the third layer in the OSI model of computer networks. Its
main function is to transfer network packets from the source to the destination. It
is involved both the source host and the destination host. At the source, it accepts
a packet from the transport layer, encapsulates it in a datagram, and then delivers
the packet to the data link layer so that it can further be sent to the receiver. At
the destination, the datagram is de-capsulated, and the packet is extracted and
delivered to the corresponding transport layer.
Features of Network Layer
1. The main responsibility of the Network layer is to carry the data packets from
the source to the destination without changing or using them.
2. If the packets are too large for delivery, they are fragmented i.e., broken down
into smaller packets.
3. It decides the route to be taken by the packets to travel from the source to the
destination among the multiple routes available in a network (also called
routing).
4. The source and destination addresses are added to the data packets inside the
network layer.
Services Offered by Network Layer
The services which are offered by the network layer protocol are as follows:
1. Packetizing
2. Routing
3. Forwarding
1. Packetizing
The process of encapsulating the data received from the upper layers of the
network (also called payload) in a network layer packet at the source and de-
capsulated the payload from the network layer packet at the destination is known
as packetizing.
The source host adds a header that contains the source and destination address
and some other relevant information required by the network layer protocol to
the payload received from the upper layer protocol and deliver the packet to the
data link layer.
The destination host receives the network layer packet from its data link layer, de-
capsulate the packet, and delivers the payload to the corresponding upper layer
protocol. The routers in the path are not allowed to change either the source or
the destination address. The routers in the path are not allowed to de-capsulate
the packets they receive unless they need to be fragmented.
 Packetizing

2. Routing
Routing is the process of moving data from one device to another device. These
are two other services offered by the network layer. In a network, there are a
number of routes available from the source to the destination. The network layer
specifies some strategies which find out the best possible route. This process is
referred to as routing. There are a number of routing protocols that are used in
this process and they should be run to help the routers coordinate with each
other and help in establishing communication throughout the network.
 routing

3. Forwarding

Forwarding is simply defined as the action applied by each router when a packet
arrives at one of its interfaces. When a router receives a packet from one of its
attached networks, it needs to forward the packet to another attached network
(unicast routing) or to some attached networks (in the case of multicast routing).
Routers are used on the network for forwarding a packet from the local network
to the remote network. So, the process of routing involves packet forwarding
from an entry interface out to an exit interface.

Forwarding

Difference between Routing and Forwarding

Routing Forwarding

Forwarding is simply defined as the

Routing is the process of moving data
action applied by each router when a
from one device to another device.
packet arrives at one of its interfaces.

Operates on the Network Layer. Operates on the Network Layer.

Work is based on Forwarding Table. Checks the forwarding table and work
 Routing Forwarding

according to that.

Works on protocols like Routing Works on protocols like UDP

Information Protocol (RIP) for Routing. Encapsulating Security Payloads

Other Services Expected from Network Layer

1. Error Control
2. Flow Control
3. Congestion Control
1. Error Control
Although it can be implemented in the network layer, it is usually not preferred
because the data packet in a network layer may be fragmented at each router,
which makes error-checking inefficient in the network layer.
2. Flow Control
It regulates the amount of data a source can send without overloading the
receiver. If the source produces data at a very faster rate than the receiver can
consume it, the receiver will be overloaded with data. To control the flow of data,
the receiver should send feedback to the sender to inform the latter that it is
overloaded with data.
There is a lack of flow control in the design of the network layer. It does not
directly provide any flow control. The datagrams are sent by the sender when
they are ready, without any attention to the readiness of the receiver.
3. Congestion Control
Congestion occurs when the number of datagrams sent by the source is beyond
the capacity of the network or routers. This is another issue in the network layer
protocol. If congestion continues, sometimes a situation may arrive where the
system collapses and no datagrams are delivered. Although congestion control is
indirectly implemented in the network layer, still there is a lack of congestion
control in the network layer.
Advantages of Network Layer Services
 Marketization service in the network layer provides ease of transportation of
the data packets.
 Marketization also eliminates single points of failure in data communication
systems.
 Routers present in the network layer reduce network traffic by creating
collision and broadcast domains.
 With the help of Forwarding, data packets are transferred from one place to
another in the network.
Disadvantages of Network Layer Services
 There is a lack of flow control in the design of the network layer.
 Congestion occurs sometimes due to the presence of too many datagrams in a
network that is beyond the capacity of the network or the routers. Due to this,
some routers may drop some of the datagrams, and some important pieces of
information may be lost.
 Although indirect error control is present in the network layer, there is a lack
of proper error control mechanisms as due to the presence of fragmented
data packets, error control becomes difficult to implement.

The most common metric values are given below:

o Hop count: Hop count is defined as a metric that specifies the number of
passes through internetworking devices such as a router, a packet must
travel in a route to move from source to the destination. If the routing
protocol considers the hop as a primary metric value, then the path with
the least hop count will be considered as the best path to move from
source to the destination.
o Delay: It is a time taken by the router to process, queue and transmit a
datagram to an interface. The protocols use this metric to determine the
delay values for all the links along the path end-to-end. The path having the
lowest delay value will be considered as the best path.
o Bandwidth: The capacity of the link is known as a bandwidth of the link.
The bandwidth is measured in terms of bits per second. The link that has a
higher transfer rate like gigabit is preferred over the link that has the lower
capacity like 56 kb. The protocol will determine the bandwidth capacity for
 all the links along the path and the overall higher bandwidth will be
considered as the best route.
o Load: Load refers to the degree to which the network resource such as a
router or network link is busy. A Load can be calculated in a variety of ways
such as CPU utilization, packets processed per second. If the traffic
increases, then the load value will also be increased. The load value
changes with respect to the change in the traffic.
o Reliability: Reliability is a metric factor may be composed of a fixed value. It
depends on the network links, and its value is measured dynamically. Some
networks go down more often than others. After network failure, some
network links repaired more easily than other network links. Any reliability
factor can be considered for the assignment of reliability ratings, which are
generally numeric values assigned by the system administrator.

Types of Routing

Routing can be classified into three categories:

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Static Routing
o Static Routing is also known as No adaptive Routing.
o It is a technique in which the administrator manually adds the routes in a
routing table.
o A Router can send the packets for the destination along the route defined
by the administrator.
o In this technique, routing decisions are not made based on the condition or
topology of the networks

Advantages of Static Routing

Following are the advantages of Static Routing:

o No Overhead: It has ho overhead on the CPU usage of the router.

Therefore, the cheaper router can be used to obtain static routing.
o Bandwidth: It has not bandwidth usage between the routers.
o Security: It provides security as the system administrator is allowed only to
have control over the routing to a particular network.

Disadvantages of Static Routing:

Following are the disadvantages of Static Routing:

o For a large network, it becomes a very difficult task to add each route
manually to the routing table.
o The system administrator should have a good knowledge of a topology as
he has to add each route manually.
Default Routing
o Default Routing is a technique in which a router is configured to send all the
packets to the same hop device, and it doesn't matter whether it belongs to
a particular network or not. A Packet is transmitted to the device for which
it is configured in default routing.
o Default Routing is used when networks deal with the single exit point.
o It is also useful when the bulk of transmission networks have to transmit
the data to the same HP device.
o When a specific route is mentioned in the routing table, the router will
choose the specific route rather than the default route. The default route is
chosen only when a specific route is not mentioned in the routing table.

Dynamic Routing
o It is also known as Adaptive Routing.
o It is a technique in which a router adds a new route in the routing table for
each packet in response to the changes in the condition or topology of the
network.
o Dynamic protocols are used to discover the new routes to reach the
destination.
o In Dynamic Routing, RIP and OSPF are the protocols used to discover the
new routes.
o If any route goes down, then the automatic adjustment will be made to
reach the destination.

The Dynamic protocol should have the following features:

o All the routers must have the same dynamic routing protocol in order to
exchange the routes.
o If the router discovers any change in the condition or topology, then router
broadcast this information to all other routers.

Advantages of Dynamic Routing:

o It is easier to configure.
 o It is more effective in selecting the best route in response to the changes in
the condition or topology.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing:

o It is more expensive in terms of CPU and bandwidth usage.
o It is less secure as compared to default and static routing.

Congestion Control techniques in Computer Networks

Congestion control refers to the techniques used to control or prevent
congestion. Congestion control techniques can be broadly classified into two
categories:

Open Loop Congestion Control

Open loop congestion control policies are applied to prevent congestion before it
happens. The congestion control is handled either by the source or the
destination.
Policies adopted by open loop congestion control –

1. Retransmission Policy:
It is the policy in which retransmission of the packets are taken care of. If the
sender feels that a sent packet is lost or corrupted, the packet needs to be
retransmitted. This transmission may increase the congestion in the network.
To prevent congestion, retransmission timers must be designed to prevent
congestion and also able to optimize efficiency.
2. Window Policy:
The type of window at the sender’s side may also affect the congestion.
Several packets in the Go-back-n window are re-sent, although some packets
may be received successfully at the receiver side. This duplication may
increase the congestion in the network and make it worse.
Therefore, Selective repeat window should be adopted as it sends the specific
packet that may have been lost.

3. Discarding Policy:
A good discarding policy adopted by the routers is that the routers may
prevent congestion and at the same time partially discard the corrupted or less
sensitive packages and also be able to maintain the quality of a message.
In case of audio file transmission, routers can discard less sensitive packets to
prevent congestion and also maintain the quality of the audio file.

4. Acknowledgment Policy:
Since acknowledgements are also the part of the load in the network, the
acknowledgment policy imposed by the receiver may also affect congestion.
Several approaches can be used to prevent congestion related to
acknowledgment.
The receiver should send acknowledgement for N packets rather than sending
acknowledgement for a single packet. The receiver should send an
acknowledgment only if it has to send a packet or a timer expires.

5. Admission Policy:
In admission policy a mechanism should be used to prevent congestion.
Switches in a flow should first check the resource requirement of a network
flow before transmitting it further. If there is a chance of congestion or there is
congestion in the network, router should deny establishing a virtual network
connection to prevent further congestion.
All the above policies are adopted to prevent congestion before it happens in the
network.

Closed Loop Congestion Control

Closed loop congestion control techniques are used to treat or alleviate
congestion after it happens. Several techniques are used by different protocols;
some of them are:

1. Backpressure:
Backpressure is a technique in which a congested node stops receiving packets
from upstream node. This may cause the upstream node or nodes to become
congested and reject receiving data from above nodes. Backpressure is a node-to-
node congestion control technique that propagates in the opposite direction of
data flow. The backpressure technique can be applied only to virtual circuit where
each node has information of its above upstream node.

In above diagram the 3rd node is congested and stops receiving packets as a
result 2nd node may be get congested due to slowing down of the output data
flow. Similarly 1st node may get congested and inform the source to slow down.

2. Choke Packet Technique:

Choke packet technique is applicable to both virtual networks as well as datagram
subnets. A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the source to inform it of
congestion. Each router monitors its resources and the utilization at each of its
output lines. Whenever the resource utilization exceeds the threshold value
which is set by the administrator, the router directly sends a choke packet to the
source giving it a feedback to reduce the traffic. The intermediate nodes through
which the packets have traveled are not warned about congestion.

3. Implicit Signaling:
In implicit signaling, there is no communication between the congested nodes
and the source. The source guesses that there is congestion in a network. For
example when sender sends several packets and there is no acknowledgment for
a while, one assumption is that there is congestion.

4. Explicit Signaling:
In explicit signaling, if a node experiences congestion it can explicitly sends a
packet to the source or destination to inform about congestion. The difference
between choke packet and explicit signaling is that the signal is included in the
packets that carry data rather than creating a different packet as in case of choke
packet technique.
Explicit signaling can occur in either forward or backward direction.
 Forward Signaling: In forward signaling, a signal is sent in the direction of the
congestion. The destination is warned about congestion. The receiver in this
case adopts policies to prevent further congestion.
 Backward Signaling: In backward signaling, a signal is sent in the opposite
direction of the congestion. The source is warned about congestion and it
needs to slow down.
Internetworking
Internetworking is combined of 2 words, inter and networking which implies an
association between totally different nodes or segments. This connection area
unit is established through intercessor devices akin to routers or gateway. The
first term for associate degree internetwork was castanet. This interconnection is
often among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental
networks. Thus, associate degree internetwork could be an assortment of
individual networks, connected by intermediate networking devices that function
as one giant network. Internetworking refers to the trade, products, and
procedures that meet the challenge of making and administering internet works.
To enable communication, every individual network node or phase is designed
with a similar protocol or communication logic that is Transfer Control Protocol
(TCP) or Internet Protocol (IP). Once a network communicates with another
network having constant communication procedures, it’s called Internetworking.
Internetworking was designed to resolve the matter of delivering a packet of
information through many links.
There is a minute difference between extending the network and
Internetworking. Merely exploitation of either a switch or a hub to attach 2 local
area networks is an extension of LAN whereas connecting them via the router is
an associate degree example of Internetworking. Internetworking is enforced in
Layer three (Network Layer) of the OSI-ISO model. The foremost notable example
of internetworking is the Internet.
There are chiefly 3 units of Internetworking:
1. Extranet
2. Intranet
3. Internet
Intranets and extranets might or might not have connections to the net. If there is
a connection to the net, the computer network or extranet area unit is usually
shielded from being accessed from the net if it is not authorized. The net isn’t
thought-about to be a section of the computer network or extranet, though it
should function as a portal for access to parts of the associate degree extranet.
1. Extranet – It’s a network of the internetwork that’s restricted in scope to one
organization or entity however that additionally has restricted connections to
the networks of one or a lot of different sometimes, however not essential. It’s
the very lowest level of Internetworking, usually enforced in an exceedingly
personal area. Associate degree extranet may additionally be classified as a
Man, WAN, or different form of network however it cannot encompass one
local area network i.e. it should have a minimum of one reference to associate
degree external network.
2. Intranet – This associate degree computer network could be a set of
interconnected networks, which exploits the Internet Protocol and uses IP-
based tools akin to web browsers and FTP tools that are underneath the
management of one body entity. That body entity closes the computer
network to the remainder of the planet and permits solely specific users. Most
typically, this network is the internal network of a corporation or different
enterprise. An outsized computer network can usually have its own internet
server to supply users with brow sable data.
3. Internet – A selected Internetworking, consisting of a worldwide
interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and personal networks
based mostly upon the Advanced analysis comes Agency Network (ARPANET)
developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense additionally home to
the World Wide Web (WWW) and cited as the ‘Internet’ to differentiate from
all different generic Internetworks. Participants within the web, or their service
suppliers, use IP Addresses obtained from address registries that manage
assignments.

Internetworking has evolved as an answer to a few key problems: isolated LANs,

duplication of resources, and an absence of network management. Isolated LANs
created transmission problems between totally different offices or departments.
Duplication of resources meant that constant hardware and code had to be
provided to every workplace or department, as did a separate support employee.
This lack of network management meant that no centralized methodology of
managing and troubleshooting networks existed.
One more form of the interconnection of networks usually happens among
enterprises at the Link Layer of the networking model, i.e. at the hardware-centric
layer below the amount of the TCP/IP logical interfaces. Such interconnection is
accomplished through network bridges and network switches. This can be
typically incorrectly termed internetworking, however, the ensuing system is just
a bigger, single sub network, and no internetworking protocol, akin to web
Protocol, is needed to traverse these devices.
However, one electronic network is also reborn into associate degree
internetwork by dividing the network into phases and logically dividing the
segment traffic with routers. The Internet Protocol is meant to supply an
associate degree unreliable packet service across the network. The design avoids
intermediate network components maintaining any state of the network. Instead,
this task is allotted to the endpoints of every communication session. To transfer
information correctly, applications should utilize associate degree applicable
Transport Layer protocol, akin to Transmission management Protocol (TCP) that
provides a reliable stream. Some applications use a less complicated, connection-
less transport protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for tasks that don’t need
reliable delivery of information or that need period of time service, akin to video
streaming or voice chat.

Internetwork Addressing –

Internetwork addresses establish devices severally or as members of a bunch.

Addressing schemes differ based on the protocol family and therefore the OSI
layer. Three kinds of internetwork addresses area units are ordinarily used: data-
link layer addresses, Media Access control (MAC) addresses, and network-layer
addresses.

1. Data Link Layer addresses: A data-link layer address unambiguously identifies

every physical network association of a network device. Data-link addresses
typically area units cited as physical or hardware addresses. Data-link
addresses sometimes exist among a flat address area and have a pre-
established and usually fastened relationship to a selected device. End systems
usually have just one physical network association, and therefore have just
one data-link address. Routers and different internetworking devices usually
have multiple physical network connections and so eventually have multiple
data-link addresses.
2. MAC Addresses: Media Access management (MAC) addresses encompass a set
of data-link layer addresses. MAC addresses establish network entities in LANs
that implement the IEEE MAC addresses of the data-link layer. MAC addresses
different area units distinctively for every local area network interface. MAC
 addresses are forty-eight bits long and are expressed in form of twelve
hexadecimal digits. The primary half dozen hexadecimal digits, which are
usually administered by the IEEE, establish the manufacturer or merchant and
therefore comprise the Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI). The last half
dozen positional notation digits comprise the interface serial variety or
another price administered by the particular merchant. MAC addresses are
typically area units referred to as burned-in addresses (BIAs) as a result of
being burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are traced into random-
access memory (RAM) once the interface card initializes.
3. Network-Layer Addresses: Network addresses sometimes exist among a
gradable address area and typically area units referred to as virtual or logical
addresses. The connection between a network address and a tool is logical and
unfixed; it usually relies either on physical network characteristics or on
groupings that don’t have any physical basis. Finish systems need one
network-layer address for every network-layer protocol they support. Routers
and different Internetworking devices need one network-layer address per
physical network association for every network-layer protocol supported.

Challenges to Internetworking –

Implementing useful internetwork isn’t at any certainty. There are several

challenging fields, particularly in the areas of dependableness, connectivity,
network management, and adaptability, and each and every space is essential in
establishing associate degree economical and effective internetwork. A few of
them are:-
 The initial challenge lies when we are trying to connect numerous systems to
support communication between disparate technologies. For example, totally
different sites might use different kinds of media, or they could operate at
variable speeds.
 Another essential thought is reliable service that should be maintained in an
internetwork. Individual users and whole organizations depend upon
consistent, reliable access to network resources.
 Network management should give centralized support associate degree
troubleshooting capabilities on the internetwork. Configuration, security,
performance, and different problems should be adequately addressed for the
internetwork to perform swimmingly.
 Flexibility, the ultimate concern, is important for network enlargement and
new applications and services, among different factors.
Advantages:
Increased connectivity: Internetworking enables devices on different networks to
communicate with each other, which increases connectivity and enables new
applications and services.
Resource sharing: Internetworking allows devices to share resources across
networks, such as printers, servers, and storage devices. This can reduce costs
and improve efficiency by allowing multiple devices to share resources.
Improved scalability: Internetworking allows networks to be expanded and scaled
as needed to accommodate growing numbers of devices and users.
Improved collaboration: Internetworking enables teams and individuals to
collaborate and work together more effectively, regardless of their physical
location.
Access to remote resources: Internetworking allows users to access resources
and services that are physically located on remote networks, improving
accessibility and flexibility.
Disadvantages:
Security risks: Internetworking can create security vulnerabilities and increase the
risk of cyber-attacks and data breaches. Connecting multiple networks together
increases the number of entry points for attackers, making it more difficult to
secure the entire system.
Complexity: Internetworking can be complex and requires specialized knowledge
and expertise to set up and maintain. This can increase costs and create
additional maintenance overhead.
Performance issues: Internetworking can lead to performance issues, particularly
if networks are not properly optimized and configured. This can result in slow
response times and poor network performance.
Compatibility issues: Internetworking can lead to compatibility issues, particularly
if different networks are using different protocols or technologies. This can make
it difficult to integrate different systems and may require additional resources to
resolve.
Management overhead: Internetworking can create additional management
overhead, particularly if multiple networks are involved. This can increase costs
and require additional resources to manage effectively.
Transport Layer
o The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top.
o The main role of the transport layer is to provide the communication
services directly to the application processes running on different hosts.
o The transport layer provides a logical communication between application
processes running on different hosts. Although the application processes on
different hosts are not physically connected, application processes use the
logical communication provided by the transport layer to send the
messages to each other.
o The transport layer protocols are implemented in the end systems but not
in the network routers.
o A computer network provides more than one protocol to the network
applications. For example, TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols
that provide a different set of services to the network layer.
o All transport layer protocols provide multiplexing/DE multiplexing service. It
also provides other services such as reliable data transfer, bandwidth
guarantees, and delay guarantees.
o Each of the applications in the application layer has the ability to send a
message by using TCP or UDP. The application communicates by using
either of these two protocols. Both TCP and UDP will then communicate
with the internet protocol in the internet layer. The applications can read
and write to the transport layer. Therefore, we can say that communication
is a two-way process.
Services provided by the Transport Layer

The services provided by the transport layer are similar to those of the data link
layer. The data link layer provides the services within a single network while the
transport layer provides the services across an internetwork made up of many
networks. The data link layer controls the physical layer while the transport layer
controls all the lower layers.

The services provided by the transport layer protocols can be divided into five
categories:

o End-to-end delivery
o Addressing
o Reliable delivery
o Flow control
o Multiplexing
End-to-end delivery:

The transport layer transmits the entire message to the destination. Therefore, it
ensures the end-to-end delivery of an entire message from a source to the
destination.

Reliable delivery:

The transport layer provides reliability services by retransmitting the lost and
damaged packets.

The reliable delivery has four aspects:

o Error control
o Sequence control
o Loss control
o Duplication control

Error Control
 o The primary role of reliability is Error Control. In reality, no transmission
will be 100 percent error-free delivery. Therefore, transport layer protocols
are designed to provide error-free transmission.
o The data link layer also provides the error handling mechanism, but it
ensures only node-to-node error-free delivery. However, node-to-node
reliability does not ensure the end-to-end reliability.
o The data link layer checks for the error between each network. If an error is
introduced inside one of the routers, then this error will not be caught by
the data link layer. It only detects those errors that have been introduced
between the beginning and end of the link. Therefore, the transport layer
performs the checking for the errors end-to-end to ensure that the packet
has arrived correctly.

Sequence Control

o The second aspect of the reliability is sequence control which is

implemented at the transport layer.
 o On the sending end, the transport layer is responsible for ensuring that the
packets received from the upper layers can be used by the lower layers. On
the receiving end, it ensures that the various segments of a transmission
can be correctly reassembled.

Loss Control

Loss Control is a third aspect of reliability. The transport layer ensures that all the
fragments of a transmission arrive at the destination, not some of them. On the
sending end, all the fragments of transmission are given sequence numbers by a
transport layer. These sequence numbers allow the receivers transport layer to
identify the missing segment.

Duplication Control

Duplication Control is the fourth aspect of reliability. The transport layer

guarantees that no duplicate data arrive at the destination. Sequence numbers
are used to identify the lost packets; similarly, it allows the receiver to identify
and discard duplicate segments.

Flow Control

Flow control is used to prevent the sender from overwhelming the receiver. If the
receiver is overloaded with too much data, then the receiver discards the packets
and asking for the retransmission of packets. This increases network congestion
and thus, reducing the system performance. The transport layer is responsible for
flow control. It uses the sliding window protocol that makes the data transmission
more efficient as well as it controls the flow of data so that the receiver does not
become overwhelmed. Sliding window protocol is byte oriented rather than
frame oriented.

Multiplexing

The transport layer uses the multiplexing to improve transmission efficiency.

Multiplexing can occur in two ways:

o Upward multiplexing: Upward multiplexing means multiple transport layer

connections use the same network connection. To make more cost-
 effective, the transport layer sends several transmissions bound for the
same destination along the same path; this is achieved through upward
multiplexing.

o Downward multiplexing: Downward multiplexing means one transport

layer connection uses the multiple network connections. Downward
multiplexing allows the transport layer to split a connection among several
paths to improve the throughput. This type of multiplexing is used when
networks have a low or slow capacity.
Addressing
o According to the layered model, the transport layer interacts with the
functions of the session layer. Many protocols combine session,
presentation, and application layer protocols into a single layer known as
the application layer. In these cases, delivery to the session layer means the
delivery to the application layer. Data generated by an application on one
machine must be transmitted to the correct application on another
machine. In this case, addressing is provided by the transport layer.
o The transport layer provides the user address which is specified as a station
or port. The port variable represents a particular TS user of a specified
station known as a Transport Service access point (TSAP). Each station has
only one transport entity.
o The transport layer protocols need to know which upper-layer protocols
are communicating.
Application Layer

The application layer in the OSI model is the closest layer to the end user which
means that the application layer and end user can interact directly with the
software application. The application layer programs are based on client and
servers.

The Application layer includes the following functions:

o Identifying communication partners: The application layer identifies the
availability of communication partners for an application with data to
transmit.
o Determining resource availability: The application layer determines
whether sufficient network resources are available for the requested
communication.
o Synchronizing communication: All the communications occur between the
applications requires cooperation which is managed by an application layer.
Services of Application Layers
o Network Virtual terminal: An application layer allows a user to log on to a
remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a
terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the software
terminal, which in turn, talks to the host. The remote host thinks that it is
communicating with one of its own terminals, so it allows the user to log
on.
o File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM): An application allows a
user to access files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a computer
and to manage files in a remote computer. FTAM defines a hierarchical
virtual file in terms of file structure, file attributes and the kind of
operations performed on the files and their attributes.
o Addressing: To obtain communication between client and server, there is a
need for addressing. When a client made a request to the server, the
request contains the server address and its own address. The server
response to the client request, the request contains the destination
address, i.e., client address. To achieve this kind of addressing, DNS is used.
o Mail Services: An application layer provides Email forwarding and storage.
o Directory Services: An application contains a distributed database that
provides access for global information about various objects and services.

Authentication: It authenticates the sender or receiver's message or both.

Application Layer Protocols: The application layer provides several protocols
which allow any software to easily send and receive information and present
meaningful data to its users.
The following are some of the protocols which are provided by the application
layer.
 TELNET: Telnet stands for Telecommunications Network. This protocol is
used for managing files over the Internet. It allows the Telnet clients to
access the resources of Telnet server. Telnet uses port number 23.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. The DNS service translates the
domain name (selected by user) into the corresponding IP address. For
example- If you choose the domain name as www.abcd.com, then DNS must
translate it as 192.36.20.8 (random IP address written just for understanding
purposes). DNS protocol uses the port number 53.
 DHCP: DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. It provides IP
addresses to hosts. Whenever a host tries to register for an IP address with
the DHCP server, DHCP server provides lots of information to the
corresponding host. DHCP uses port numbers 67 and 68.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This protocol helps to transfer
different files from one device to another. FTP promotes sharing of files via
remote computer devices with reliable, efficient data transfer. FTP uses port
number 20 for data access and port number 21 for data control.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is used to transfer
electronic mail from one user to another user. SMTP is used by end users to
send emails with ease. SMTP uses port numbers 25 and 587.
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the foundation of
the World Wide Web (WWW). HTTP works on the client server model. This
protocol is used for transmitting hypermedia documents like HTML. This
protocol was designed particularly for the communications between the web
browsers and web servers, but this protocol can also be used for several
other purposes. HTTP is a stateless protocol (network protocol in which a
client sends requests to server and server responses back as per the given
state), which means the server is not responsible for maintaining the
previous client’s requests. HTTP uses port number 80.
 NFS: NFS stands for Network File System. This protocol allows remote hosts
to mount files over a network and interact with those file systems as though
they are mounted locally. NFS uses the port number 2049.
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. This
protocol gathers data by polling the devices from the network to the
management station at fixed or random intervals, requiring them to disclose
certain information. SNMP uses port numbers 161 (TCP) and 162 (UDP).

Different types of MAC protocols?

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The data link layer is only effective if there is a dedicated connection between the
sender and the receiver. In case there isn't any, numerous stations can access the
channel simultaneously. Therefore, it is necessary to use multiple access control
(MAC) protocols to reduce collision and prevent crosstalk.

Analogy

When a teacher presents a question in a classroom full of students and all the
students start replying simultaneously, chaos is created. The teacher must
manage the students and force them to respond one at a time. This is analogous
to when MAC protocols become necessary in data link layers.

Classification

MAC protocols are classified into three categories, as illustrated below:

MAC protocols classification

Random access protocol

In random access protocol, no station has a higher priority than another station.
Instead, all are equal. There is no predetermined time for sending data; it
depends on the channel's status. The order of the stations transmitting data is not
predefined. It is sub-divided into the following:

 ALOHA: In ALOHA, a station can transmit whenever data is available. If

another station broadcasts at the same time, collision occurs and the
packets are lost. ALOHA protocol has two versions: pure ALOHA and slotted
ALOHA.
 CSMA: In Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) protocol, each node must
monitor the carrier for some time before attempting to deliver data
packets. Each node on the bus gets an equal chance to send the data across
the network.
 CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) protocol is used for carrier transmission via collision detection.
It is used in early Ethernet technology for Local Area Networking (LAN).

Note: If you want to read more about CSMA/CD

  CSMA/CA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) is used for carrier transmission using collision avoidance. It has
wide application in wireless technology.

Note: To know about the working of CSMA/CA

Controlled access protocol

In the controlled access approach, all the stations communicate with each other
to determine which station has the authority to send data in order to avoid
collision. The following protocols fall under the category of controlled access:

 Reservation: In reservation, a station reserves the transmission channel

before transmitting the data packets.
 Polling: In polling, one device is marked as the primary station (controller)
and the other as the secondary station. The controller is responsible for all
data transfers.
 Token passing: In token passing, stations are logically connected in the
form of a ring. To avoid collisions, this media access control technique uses
token passing. The only computer allowed to communicate is the one with
the token.

Channelization protocol

Channelization is a multiple-access mechanism in which the link's available

bandwidth is shared among several stations as per time, frequency, or code.

 FDMA: In Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), the available

bandwidth is split into various frequency bands. To prevent crosstalk and
noise, guard bands are also used to ensure that no two bands coincide.
 TDMA: In Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), bandwidth is divided
across several stations. Time is divided into slots and stations broadcast
data in their allotted slots to prevent collisions.
 CDMA: In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), all signals are broadcast
concurrently on one channel. It eliminates the concept of time and
bandwidth division. It is a code-based communication technique. CDMA
codes are utilized to differentiate between various users.