Data Communication

and
Computer Networks
CS 602
B. Tech. (Semester VI, Section: X )
2024-25 (Even Semester)

Dr. Abhijit Sharma

Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
NIT Durgapur

CS602: Data Communication and Computer Networks

[email protected]
CS602

Physical Layer
SIGNALS
What is exchanged between Alice and Bob is data, but what goes through the network
at the physical layer is signals.

Data can be Analog or Digital.

1. Analog data refers to information that is continuous;
Ex. sounds made by a human voice, Thermometer readings
2. Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
Ex. Barcodes, Digital photographs

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Comparison of analog and digital signals

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Periodic and Nonperiodic
An analog signal can take one of the two forms: periodic or aperiodic.
In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.

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Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
A simple periodic signal, a sine wave, cannot be
A sine wave decomposed into simpler signals.

s(t ) = A sin( 2ft +  )

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Simple Periodic Analog Signal

Vertical Shift

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Phase

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Digital Signal

Bit Rate: The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1 s

Bit Length The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

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Digital Signal

Bit Rate: The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1 s

Bit Length The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

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Digital Signal

If a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits.

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Digital Signal

Example:

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?

We calculate the number of bits from the formula

Number of bits per level =log2 8 =3

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits

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Time and Frequency Domains
• We need to send a composite signal to communicate data.
• A composite signal is made of many simple sine waves.

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Composite Signals
The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

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Composite Signals
Example: A composite signal contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is
5000 - 1000, or 4000.

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Composite Signals
Example: If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300,
500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components
have a maximum amplitude of 10 V

B =fh - fl = 900 - 100 =800 Hz

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Composite Signals
Example: A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the
lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of the same
amplitude.

B = fh − fl
20 = 60 − fl
fl = 60 − 20 = 40 Hz

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Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal

Possibility?
Digital Signal through a wide-bandwidth Medium
Digital Signal through a Band-Limited Medium

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Digital Signal using only One Harmonic

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Digital Signal using only One Harmonic

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Digital Signal using only One Harmonic

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Digital Signal

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Harmonics of a Digital Signal

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 Low-pass and band-pass
Low pass channel has a bandwidth with frequencies between 0 and f. Lower limit is 0, the
upper limit can be any frequency (including infinity)
Band-pass channel has bandwidth with frequencies between f1 and f2.
The analog bandwidth of a medium is expressed in hertz; the digital bandwidth, in bits per
second
Digital transmission needs a low-pass channel
Analog transmission can use a band-pass channel

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Data Communication Measurements

Throughput
• How fast data can pass through an entity
Propagation speed
• Depends on medium and signal frequency
Propagation time (propagation delay)
• Time required for one bit to travel from one point to another
Wavelength
• Propagation speed = wavelength X frequency

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2-2 SIGNAL IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium
is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

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Attenuation and Amplification

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2.2.2 Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.

Distortion can occur in a composite signal made up of different frequencies.

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Noise

Noise is another cause of impairment.

Several type of noise may occur during the signal transmission.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is defined as

SNR = (average signal power) / (average noise power)

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Data Rate Limit

Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available

2. The levels of signals we can use
3. The quality of the channel

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel,
another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate

Channel capacity
• Max. bit rate a transmission medium can transfer
Nyquist theorem
• C = 2H log2V

where C: channel capacity (bit per second)

H: bandwidth (Hz)
V: signal levels (2 for binary)

• C is proportional to H

 Significant bandwidth puts a limit on channel capacity

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Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting
a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated
as

Bit Rate = 2  3000  log2 2 = 6000 bps

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Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal
with four signal levels (for each level, we send two bits).
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:

Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 4 = 12,000 bps

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Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

Shannon capacity determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel

Shannon Capacity

• C = H log2(1 + S/N)
where C: (noisy) channel capacity (bps)
H: bandwidth (Hz)
S/N: signal-to-noise ratio
dB = 10 log10 S/N

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Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-
noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the
signal is faint. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + S/N) = B log2 (1 + 0)

= B log2 (1) = B  0 = 0

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We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A
telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz).
The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 35dB, i.e., 3162. For this channel the
capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + S/N) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162)

= 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000  11.62 = 34,860 bps

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Digital Transmission

DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION: Line Coding

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Line Coding
Characteristics
Signal Element Versus Data Element

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Line Coding
Characteristics
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or
the baud rate.

DC Components
Spectral Efficiency
Baseline Wandering
Power Consumption

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Line Coding
Characteristics
Self-synchronization

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Line Coding Schemes

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Unipolar Scheme

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Polar Schemes
The voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative.

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Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)
The voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative.

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Return-to-Zero (RZ)
The voltage level for 1 can be positive and the voltage level for 0 can be negative.

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Manchester and Differential Manchester

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Bipolar Schemes
A common bipolar encoding scheme: bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI)

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Block Coding
Block coding is referred to as an mB/nB encoding technique.

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Block Coding

• Division
• Substitution
• Line Coding

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Block Coding

4B/5B

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Block Coding

4B/5B

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Block Coding

8B/6T

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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION: Sampling
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Quantization

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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Quantization

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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
PCM

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Sampling Rate
According to the Nyquist theorem, to reproduce the original analog signal, one necessary condition
is that the sampling rate be at least twice the highest frequency in the original signal.

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TRANSMISSION MODES

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Parallel Transmission

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Serial Transmission

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Asynchronous Transmission

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Synchronous Transmission

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Analog Transmission
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

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Analog Transmission
Types of digital-to-analog conversion

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Amplitude Shift Keying

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Frequency Shift Keying

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Phase Shift Keying

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Phase Shift Keying

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Phase Shift Keying

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Phase Shift Keying

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