Module 1

The Earth

The earth is a common object in the solar system, one of the eight major planets, that
goes around the sun once a year in an almost circular orbit. It is the third planet out from the
Sun, it is fifth in mass and diameter, and it has the greatest density of all the planets. The earth
is unique because of its abundant supply of liquid water, a strong magnetic field and a particular
atmospheric composition.

1. Measurements:
Age: at least 4.5 billion yrs
Mass: 6 x 1021 metric tons (5.98 x 1024 kg)
Size: Polar diameter: 12,713.54 km
Equatorial diameter : 12,756.32 km
Polar Circumference: 40,008 km
Equatorial Circumference: 40,075.16 km
Area: Total Surface Area: 509,700,000 km2
Land Area: 148,400,000 km2 (21% of T.S.A.)
Water Area: 361,300,000 km2 (79% of T.S.A.)
Surface Features: Highest – Mt. Everest, 8,848 m above sea level
Lowest – shore of the Dead Sea about 399 m below sea
level
Ocean Depths:
Deepest part of the ocean – area of Mariana’s Trench: 11,033 m below surface
Average Ocean Depth: 3,703 m
Temperature - Highest recorded: 580C, Al Aziziyah, Libya
Lowest: -89.60C, Vostok Station, Antarctica

2. Motions of the Earth:

It is important to note that the Earth (along with the solar system) moves through
the Milky Way about 3/5 of the way from the center to the edge of the galaxy, with average
speed of about 250 km/s.

The three basic motions of the earth

1) Rotation
It rotates on its axis every 23 hrs. 56 min. 4.09 sec in an eastward direction.
2) Revolution
The Earth revolves around the sun once every 365 days, 6 hrs. 9 min. 9.54 sec in a
slightly elliptical orbit.
Our planet moves with a speed that varies. It moves fastest when it is closest to the
sun. (Perihelion – closest to the sun) It moves slowest when it is farthest from the Sun.
(Aphelion – farthest to the Sun)

3) Precession
This is the slow wobble of the earth’s axis. It is the earth’s reaction to the
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on its equatorial bulge. It takes 26 000 years
to complete one turn or wobble of the earth’s axis.
⮚ The earth is inclined at 23.50 from a line perpendicular to the plane. The inclination, rotation
and revolution results to:
1) Day and nights that vary in length
2) Seasons that change during the course of a year
3) Climates that vary with latitudes

⮚ Aside from the equator, there are 4 great circles – Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn,
Arctic Circle, and Antarctic Circle.

3. Important Dates that Determines the Start of the Seasons in the “Northern
Hemisphere”
1) June 21 or 22
● Longest day of the year
● Identifies the beginning of the summer season
● Called the “Summer Solstice” (Solstice is a Latin word meaning “Sun stand
still”)
2) September 22 or 23
● Equal nights and days
● Identifies the beginning of the autumn season
● Called the “Autumnal Equinox” (Equinox is a Latin word meaning “equal
nights”)
3) December 21 or 22
● Longest night of the year
● Identifies the beginning of the winter season
● Called the “Winter Solstice”

4) March 20 or 21
● Equal nights and days
● Identifies the beginning of the spring season
● Called the Spring (or Vernal) Equinox

4. Latitude and Longitude

Globes and maps are representations of the Earth. They express information through
lines, colors, shapes and various symbols to portray features such as bodies of water,
mountains, deserts, rivers, roads, and cities.

There are two grid coordinates that can be used to locate any point on Earth. These are
lines of latitude and of longitude.

Lines of latitude describe the position of points on the Earth’s surface in relation to the
equator. The latitude of a point is measured in terms of its angular distance from the equator
toward one of the Earth’s poles. It is measured in degrees. At any point on the equator, the
latitude is 00, while the North Pole is at 90 0 N latitude and the South Pole at 90 0 S latitude. A
parallel of latitude forms an imaginary circle. The distance between two adjacent parallels is 1 0,
roughly equivalent to a distance of 111 kilometers or 60 nautical miles.

Lines of longitude or meridians describe the position of points on the Earth’s surface in
relation to the prime meridian (0 0 longitude), which is an imaginary line from the North Pole to
the South Pole and which passes through Greenwich, England. The prime meridian divides the
Earth into two parts – hemispheres of east and west longitude (subdivided into 180 0 each). For
example, the Philippines is in the eastern hemisphere, while New York is in the western
hemisphere. At the equator, the space between two adjacent meridians is approximately 111
kilometers. Any point on the Earth’s surface traces a whole circle (or 360 0) once every 24 hours.
Therefore, in one hour, 1/24 of 3600 (or 150) is traced by any point.

Cartography is the science of mapmaking. Maps depict topography (surface features)

and specific themes such as vegetation and other cover. They employ various projections or
transformations that enable the Earth’s curved surface to be represented on a plane. In other
words, map projections are systems of transferring parallels and meridians from a globe onto a
flat map. The cylindrical projection is a projection of the globe onto a cylinder. The conical
projection is onto a cone, and is commonly used to map mid-latitude areas with large east to
west dimensions. The azimuthal projection is onto a plane, in order to map compact areas, such
as the Polar Regions.

Topographic maps show Earth’s surface features such as relief, rivers, towns, railways,
etc. Data are collected from aerial photographs (phogrammetry) and from field surveys which
includes measurements of elevation and horizontal distances. Map scales show the relationship
between distances on a map and corresponding distances on the Earth’s surface (e.g. scale on
world maps may be written as 1: 50,000,000 or 1 : 1 x 10 8). Map legends list and describe the
symbols and colors on a map. Geographic grids are the networks of lines that help us find and
describe locations (parallels and meridians).

B. The Moon
Next to the sun, the Moon is the largest, brightest object in the sky. The Moon is the
Earth’s nearest neighbor. There are two major types of terrain: relatively bright highlands and
darker plains. It has neither an atmosphere nor any water so the components in the soils do
not weather chemically so it is considered geologically dead.

1. Measurements

Age: at least 4.5 billion yrs

Average length of lunar day: 29.53059 days (synodic month)
Diameter: 3,476 kilometers
Distance from Earth: shortest – 356,339 km (perigee)
greatest – 406,699 km (apogee)
mean - 384,403 km
Circumference: about 10,927 km
Mass: 1/81 that of the Earth (7.349 x 1022 kg)
Mean Surface Temperature (day): 1070C
Mean Surface Temperature (night): -1530C
Rotational and Orbital Period: 27.32166 days (sidereal month)
Surface Area: about 3.8 x 107 km2
Surface Gravity: about 1/6 that of the Earth’s
Volume: 1/50 that of the Earth

2. Phases of the Moon

From any location on the Earth, the Moon appears to be a circular disk which, at any
specific time, is illuminated to some degree by direct sunlight.
 During each lunar orbit (a lunar month), we see the Moon's appearance change from not
visibly illuminated through partially illuminated to fully illuminated, then back through partially
illuminated to not illuminated again. Although this cycle is a continuous process, there are eight
distinct, traditionally recognized stages, called phases. The phases designate both the degree
to which the Moon is illuminated and the geometric appearance of the illuminated part.

New Moon - The Moon's unilluminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon is not
visible (except during a solar eclipse).

Waxing Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half
illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
increasing.

First Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight.

The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.
Waxing Gibbous - The Moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully
illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
increasing.

Full Moon - The Moon's illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears
to be completely illuminated by direct sunlight.
Waning Gibbous - The Moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully
illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
decreasing.

Last Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight.

The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

Waning Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half
illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
decreasing.

3. Eclipse of the Sun and Moon

1. Solar Eclipse
It occurs when the Moon passes between the Earth and Sun and the Moon's shadow
crosses the Earth.

The 3 types are:

a) Total eclipse – occurs when the Moon obscures the Sun entirely.
b) Partial eclipse – occurs when the Moon only covers a portion of the Sun.
c) Annular eclipse – occurs when the Moon will not cover the Sun entirely forming a thin
ring, or annulus, of sunlight visible around the Moon; it happens during a solar eclipse
when the Moon is at the far point in its orbit; this occurs because the Moon's orbit about
the Earth is not perfectly circular, sometimes it is slightly farther away from the Earth.

2. Lunar eclipse
It occurs when the Earth passes between the Moon and Sun. In order for the Moon to
pass through the Earth's shadow, it must be during the Full Moon phase.
 The reason that the Moon doesn't just disappear all of a sudden during a total lunar
eclipse is that Earth's shadow, like the shadow of everything else, isn't all completely dark.
The lighter part of Earth's shadow is call the "penumbra" and the totally dark part is called
the "umbra". If you see a chart that says the lunar eclipse is going to be penumbral, this
means that the Moon will only pass through the lighter part of Earth's shadow. The Lunar
Eclipse can be:

1) Partial Lunar Eclipse - occurs when only part of the Moon passes through the
umbra, or darkest part, of Earth's shadow.
2) Total Lunar Eclipse - most beautiful, occurs when the entire Moon is in the
darkest part of Earth's shadow.

The total number of eclipses, both lunar and solar, never exceeds seven in a year.
Because the Moon is so much smaller than the Earth, and casts a smaller shadow, solar
eclipses are more infrequent than lunar eclipses; in a year, between 2 to 4 lunar eclipses will
occur and at least 2 solar eclipses will occur. Total solar eclipses happen only every 1.5 years
or so.

4. Tides
⮚ The distortion of the ocean (and also of the solid Earth) by the difference in the Moon's
gravitational pull on the two sides of the Earth - the side closer to the Moon and the side
farther away.
⮚ Approximately twice a day, the level of the sea rises; when the level is highest, it is
referred to as high tide. When the sea level is lowest, midway between high tides, it is
referred to as low tide. Interval between successive high tides = 12 hours, 25 minutes

Name:
Exercise 1. Earth’s Spheres
Based from the image below, there are 12 possible interactions among the four spheres as
indicated by the arrows. What are these interactions? Write an example/event to illustrate each
possibility. The first two is done for you.

1. Interaction: Biosphere to Atmosphere

Example: Carbon Dioxide emission due to human activities thereby increasing CO2
concentration in the atmosphere.
Plants also give off Oxygen to the atmosphere.
2. Interaction: Atmosphere to Biosphere
Example:
3. Interaction: Biosphere to Hydrosphere
Example:
4. Hydrosphere to biosphere:
Example:
5. Geosphere and Hydrosphere:
Example:

6. Hydrosphere to Geosphere
Example:
7. Geosphere to Atmosphere:
Example:

8. Atmosphere to Geosphere:
Example:

9. Geosphere to Biosphere:
Example:

10. Biosphere to Geosphere:

Example:
11. Hydrosphere to Atmosphere
Example:

12. Atmosphere to Hydrosphere

Name:

Exercise 2. Longitudes and Latitudes

I. Using the terms below, label latitudes and longitudes on the world map. Write your answer
on the lines connected to the arrows.

90º N 45º N 0º Latitude 45º S 90º S

180º W 135º W 90º W 45º W 0º Longitude
45º E 90º E 135º E 180º E

II. Using the world longitude and latitude map printout (next page), answer the following
questions and mark the locations.

1. Draw a bold line along the equator (0 degrees latitude).

2. Draw another bold line along the Prime Meridian (0 degrees longitude).
3. In which ocean is the location 10 degrees S latitude, 75 degrees E longitude located? Mark it
on the map with an "X" and write the name of the ocean on the map.
4. In which ocean is the location 30 degrees N latitude, 60 degrees W longitude located? Mark it
on the map with a “Y" and write the name of the ocean on the map.
5. Mark the following cities (use dots) on the map and beside it, write the initial given.

B. Beijing: 40°N, 116°E C. Cairo: 30°N, 31°E

CT. Cape Town: 34°S, 18°E H. Hong Kong: 22°N, 114°E
J. Jakarta: 6°S, 106°E LA. Los Angeles: 34°N, 118°W
LI. Lima: 12°S, 77°W LO. London: 51°N, 0°W
MC. Mexico City: 19°N, 99°W MO. Moscow: 55°N, 37°E
MU. Mumbai: 19°N, 72°E NA. Nairobi: 1°S, 37°E
NO. New Orleans: 30°N, 90°W NY. New York: 40°N, 74°W
R. Rio de Janeiro: 23°S, 43°W SE. Seattle: 47°N, 122°W
SY. Sydney: 34°S, 151°E TK. Tokyo: 35°N, 139°E
T. Toronto: 43°N, 79°W MA: Manila: 14° N, 121°E

Name:
 Exercise 3. Synodic and Sidereal Months

Instructions:
1. On Month 1 in the figure above, indicate the dark half of the Moon on each of the eight lunar
positions by shading the area with a pencil. Delicately label the phases of the moon as seen
from Earth.

2. Do the same for Month 2.

3. Generalize the difference between a sidereal and a synodic month.