Module 2.

Supporting Cabling and Physical Installations

2.1.1

Network Data Transmission

Network data transfer works by modulating the properties of a transmission

medium—electric current, infrared light, or radio waves—to encode a signal.
One example of modulation is transitioning between low and high voltage
states in an electrical circuit. These voltage pulses can encode symbols,
which can be mapped to digital bits—ones and zeros.

Each media type supports a range of possible frequencies. Higher

frequencies allow for more data to be transferred per second. The range of
frequencies is referred to as the media bandwidth.

The narrow definition of bandwidth is a frequency range measured in cycles

per second or Hertz (Hz), but the term is very widely used in data networking
to mean the amount of data that can be transferred, measured in multiples
of bits per second (bps). Encoding methods mean that, for instance, a signal
with 100 MHz frequency bandwidth can transfer much more than 100 Mbps.

2.1.2 Ethernet Standards

Over the years, many protocols, standards, and products have been
developed to implement the functions of the Physical and Data Link layers of
the OSI model. A standard must define cable and connector specifications
and define schemes for modulation and encoding.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 Ethernet

standards (ieee802.org/3) are very widely used on both LANs and WANs.
Ethernet standards provide assurance that network cabling will meet the
bandwidth requirements of applications. These Ethernet media specifications
are named using a three-part convention, which is often referred to as
xBASE-y. This describes the following:

 The speed or bit rate in megabits per second (Mbps) or gigabits per
second (Gbps).

 The signal mode (baseband or broadband). All mainstream types of

Ethernet use baseband transmissions, so you will only see
specifications of the form xBASE-y.

 A designator for the media type.

For example, 10BASE-T denotes an early implementation that works at 10
Mbps (10), uses a baseband signal (BASE), and runs over twisted
pair copper cabling (-T).

Copper cable is used to transmit electrical signals. The cable between two
nodes creates a low voltage electrical circuit between the interfaces on the
nodes. There are two main types of copper cable: twisted pair and coaxial
(coax). Copper cable suffers from high attenuation, meaning that the signal
quickly loses strength over long links. Twisted pair cable is rated
to Category (or "Cat") standards that define what bandwidth it should
support, up to a given distance.

2.1.3 Media Access Control and Collision Domains

Ethernet is a multiple access area network, which means that the available
communications capacity is shared between the nodes that are connected to
the same media. Media access control (MAC) refers to the methods a
network technology uses to determine when nodes can communicate on
shared media and to deal with possible problems, such as two devices
attempting to communicate simultaneously.

Ethernet uses a contention-based MAC system. Each network node

connected to the same media is in the same collision domain. When two
nodes transmit at the same time, the signals are said to collide, and neither
signal can reach its destination. This means that they must be resent,
reducing available bandwidth. The collisions become more frequent as more
nodes are added, and consequently the effective data rate is reduced.

The Ethernet protocol governing contention and media access is called

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). A collision
is the state when a signal is present on an interface's transmit and receives
lines simultaneously. On detecting a collision, the node broadcasts a jam
signal. Each node that was attempting to use the media then waits for a
random period (backoff) before attempting to transmit again.

An illustration represents the six steps of the C S M A or C D media access

method.

Description
The CSMA/CD media access method. (Images © 123RF.com.)

The collision detection mechanism means that only half-duplex transmission

is possible. This means that a node can transmit or receive, but it cannot do
both at the same time.

In the 10BASE-T star wiring physical topology, each node is cabled to an

Ethernet hub. The hub repeats incoming signals to each connected node.
Consequently, every host connected to the same hub is within the same
collision domain. However, this 10BASE-T physical topology dates from 1990.
You are very unlikely to find it deployed in a modern network.

2.1.4 100BASE-TX Fast Ethernet Standards

The Fast Ethernet standard uses the same CSMA/CD protocol as 10BASE-T
but with higher frequency signaling and improved encoding methods, raising
the bit rate from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. 100BASE-TX refers to Fast Ethernet
working over Cat 5 (or better) twisted pair copper cable with a maximum
supported link length of 100 meters (328 feet).

100BASE-TX can be implemented with a hub, but the standard was created
at a time that switches started to replace hubs as the connection point for
end systems. The contention-based access method used by a hub does not
scale to large numbers of end systems within the same collision domain.
Where a hub works only at the Physical layer, a switch uses information
about source and destination addresses carried in layer 2frames to establish
a temporary circuit between two nodes. Unlike a hub, each switch port is a
separate collision domain. By eliminating the effect of contention, switches
allow for full-duplex transmissions, where a node can transmit and receive
simultaneously, and each node can use the full 100 Mbps bandwidth of the
cable link to the switch port.

To support compatibility with hosts still equipped with 10 Mbps Ethernet

interfaces, Fast Ethernet introduced an autonegotiation protocol to allow a
host to choose the highest supported connection parameters (10 or 100
Mbps and half- or full-duplex). 10BASE-T Ethernet specifies that a node
should transmit regular electrical pulses when it is not transmitting data to
confirm the viability of the link. Fast Ethernet codes a 16-bit data packet into
this signal, advertising its service capabilities. This is called a Fast Link Pulse.
A node that does not support autonegotiation can be detected by one that
does and sent ordinary link integrity test signals, or Normal Link Pulses.

Fast Ethernet would not be deployed on new networks, but you may need to
maintain it in legacy installations.

2.1.5 Gigabit Ethernet Standards

Gigabit Ethernet builds on the standards defined for Ethernet and Fast
Ethernet to implement rates of 1,000 Mbps (1 Gbps). When installed using
Cat 5e or better copper wire, Gigabit Ethernet is specified as 1000BASE-T.
Gigabit Ethernet does not support hubs; it is implemented only using
switches. The maximum distance of 100 meters (328 feet) applies to cabling
between the node and a switch port, or between two switch ports.

Gigabit Ethernet is the mainstream choice for new installations of access

networks; that is, cabling to connect client workstations to a local network.
The main decision would be whether to use copper or fiber optic cable. Fiber
gives better upgrade potential in the future, while copper cable is cheaper to
install and far more hosts are installed with network cards that support
copper than support fiber.

10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 GbE) multiplies the nominal speed of Gigabit

Ethernet by a factor of 10. Because of the higher frequencies required, 10
GbE can only run at reduced distances over unshielded copper cable. Longer
runs require higher categories of copper cable with some type of shielding,
or the use of fiber optic cable. There are also specifications for 40 Gbps
operation.

Specification Cable Maximum Distance

10GBASE-T UTP (Cat 6) 55 m (180 feet)

F/UTP (Cat 6A) 100 m (328 feet)

S/FTP (Cat 7) 100 m (328 feet)

40GBASE-T S/FTP (Cat 8) 30 m (100 feet)

10/40 GbE Ethernet is not deployed in many access networks, as the cost of
10/40 GbE compatible network adapters and switch transceiver modules is
high. It might be used where a company's business requires very high-
bandwidth data transfers, such as TV and film production. It is also widely
used as backbone cabling, where it supports high-bandwidth links between
switches and routers, or between appliances in a datacenter.

2.1.6 Fiber Ethernet Standards

Fiber optic cable uses infrared light signals. The light signals are also not
susceptible to interference or noise from other sources and less effected by
attenuation. Consequently, fiber optic cable supports higher bandwidth over
longer links than copper cable. Fiber optic cabling is divided into single mode
(SMF) and multimode (MMF) types, and MMF is categorized by optical mode
designations (OM1, OM2, OM3, and OM4).

Ethernet standards over fiber set out the use of different types of cable for
100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps, and 40/100 Gbps operation. There are variants
for long wavelength optics, required for long-distance transmission, and
short wavelength optics. Some of the main standards for speeds up to 10
Gbps are listed in the table.

Specificatio Maximum
Optics Cable Connectors
n Distance

100BASE-FX 1300 nm MMF (OM1) 4 km (2.48 miles) ST, SC, MT-RJ

100BASE-SX 850 nm MMF (OM1) 300 m (984 feet) ST, SC, LC

MMF (OM2)

1000BASE- 850 nm MMF (OM1) 275 m (902 feet) ST, SC, LC, MT-
SX RJ
MMF (OM2) 550 m (1804 feet)

MMF (OM3)

1000BASE- 1,300 MMF 550 m (1,804 feet) SC, LC

LX nm (OM1/OM2/OM3)
5 km (3.1 miles)
1,310 SMF (OS1/OS2)
nm

10GBASE-SR 850 nm MMF (OM1) 33 m (108 feet) SC, LC

MMF (OM2) 82 m (269 feet)

Specificatio Maximum
Optics Cable Connectors
n Distance

MMF (OM3) 300 m (984 feet)

MMF (OM4) 400 m (1,312 feet)

10GBASE-LR 1,310 SMF (OS1/OS2) 10 km (6.2 miles) SC, LC

nm

Fiber is often used for backbone cabling in office networks and for
workstations with high-bandwidth requirements, such as video editing. The
principal applications of 10 GbE (and better) are the following:

 Increasing bandwidth for server interconnections and network

backbones, especially in datacenters and for storage area networks
(SANs).

 Replacing existing switched public data networks based on proprietary

technologies with simpler Ethernet switches (Metro Ethernet).

2.2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair is a type of copper cable that has been extensively used for
telephone systems and data networks. One pair of insulated wires twisted
together forms a balanced pair. The pair carries the same signal but with
different polarity; one wire is positive, and the other is negative. This allows
the receiver to distinguish the signal from any noise more strongly. The cable
is completed with an insulating outer jacket.

A twisted pair cable has four pairs of color-coded wires.

Twisted pair cable—Each color-coded pair is twisted at a different rate to

reduce interference. (Image by Thuansak Srilao © 123RF.com.)

The pairs are twisted at different rates to reduce external interference and
crosstalk. Crosstalk is a phenomenon whereby one pair causes interference
in another as a result of their proximity.
Twisted pair can use either solid or stranded conductor wires. Solid cabling
uses a single thick wire per conductor and is used for cables that run behind
walls or through ducts. Stranded cabling uses thin filament wires wrapped
around one another and is used to make flexible patch cords for connecting
computers to wall ports and switch ports to patch panel ports. Copper wire
thickness is measured using American Wire Gauge (AWG). Increasing AWG
numbers represent thinner wire. Solid cable uses thicker 22 to 24 AWG, while
the stranded cable used for patch cords is often 26 AWG. The attenuation of
stranded wire is higher than solid wire, so it should not be used for cables
over 5 m in length.

Most twisted pair cable used in office networks is unshielded twisted pair
(UTP). Modern buildings are often flood wired using UTP cabling. This
involves cables being laid to every location in the building that may need to
support a telephone or computer.

2.2.2 Shielded and Screened Twisted Pair Cable

Shielded cable is less susceptible to interference and crosstalk. This type of

cable is required for some Ethernet standards and may also be a requirement
in environments with high levels of interference, such as cabling that is run
near motors, generators, or fluorescent lighting.

Shielded cable can be referred to generically as shielded twisted pair

(STP), but there are actually several types of shielding:

 Screened cable has one thin outer foil shield around all pairs. Screened
cable is usually designated as screened twisted pair (ScTP) or
foiled/unshielded twisted pair (F/UTP), or sometimes just foiled twisted
pair (FTP).

 Fully shielded cabling has a braided outer screen and foil-shielded pairs
and is referred to as shielded/foiled twisted pair (S/FTP). There are also
variants with a foil outer shield (F/FTP).

 U/FTP cable has foil-shielded pairs but no outer shield.

Legacy STP cable could be complex to install, as it required bonding each

element to ground manually, but modern F/UTP and S/FTP solutions with
appropriate cable, connectors, and patch panels reduce this complexity by
incorporating bonding within the design of each element.

2.2.3 Cat Cable Standards

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)/Electronic Industries Alliance
(EIA) have created categories of cable standards for twisted pair to simplify
selection of a suitable quality cable. These categories, along with other
aspects of telecommunications wiring best practices, are defined in the
ANSI/TIA/EIA 568 Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling
Standards (tiaonline.org/standard/tia-568). Similar standards are also
maintained by the ISO (ISO/IEC 11801), which refers to categories of
components and classes of permanent links (incorporating both cable and
termination).

Ethernet Max. Frequen Connecto

Cat/Class Cable Type
Standard Distance cy r

5e (Class D) UTP or F/UTP 1000BASE 100 m (328 100 MHz RJ45

-T ft)

6 (Class E) UTP, F/UTP, or U/FTP 1000BASE 100 m (328 250 MHz RJ45
-T ft)

10GBASE- 55 m (180 ft)

T

6A (Class UTP, F/UTP, U/FTP, or 10GBASE- 100 m (328 500 MHz RJ45
Ea) S/FTP T ft)

7 (Class F) S/FTP or F/FTP 10GBASE- 100 m (328 600 MHz GG45/

T ft) TERA

8/8.1 (Class U/FTP or F/UTP 40GBASE- 30 m (100 ft) 2,000 RJ45

I) T MHz

8.2 (Class F/FTP or S/FTP 40GBASE- 30 m (100 ft) 2,000 GG45/

II) T MHz TERA

2.2.4 Twisted Pair Connector Types

Twisted pair copper cabling uses Registered Jack (RJ) connectors for the
physical interface. There are many different types of RJ connector, identified
by numbers (and sometimes letters). Some are physically different, while
others are identical but wired differently for different applications. The most
widely used connectors are RJ45 and RJ11.
RJ45 Connectors

RJ45 connectors are used with 4-pair copper cables. The connectors are also
referred to as 8P8C, standing for 8-position/8-contact. This means that all
eight "potential" wire positions are supplied with contacts, so that they can
all carry signals if needed. RJ45 is used for Ethernet twisted pair cabling.

RJ45 jack and plug. (Image © 123RF.com.)

RJ45 plugs have a plastic retaining clip. This is normally protected by a

rubber boot. This type of cable construction is also referred to as snagless.

There are also GG45 and TERA connectors, associated with ISO Class F and
Class II cabling. GG45 has a similar form factor to RJ45 but has four
conductors in the corners. TERA connectors have a completely different form
factor.
RJ11 Connectors

The smaller RJ11 connector is used with 2-pair copper cable. An RJ11
connector can support six positions, but only the center two contacts are
wired (6P2C). In a telephone system, this pair carries the dial tone and voice
circuit. These are also called the Tip and Ring wires after the way older
phone plugs were wired. The other pair is usually unused but can be
deployed for a secondary circuit. RJ11 connectors are used for telephone
systems and to connect analog data modems to a phone jack.

RJ11 jack and 6P2C plug. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Other six position connectors are the same physical form factor but wired to
use more pairs. RJ14 is 6P4C, and RJ25 is 6P6C.

2.2.5 Plenum and Riser-rated Cable

When choosing a copper cable type, basic considerations include the
category, unshielded versus shielded, and the appropriate use of solid versus
stranded cable. Another consideration is how cable installation must conform
to any national or local building regulations.

A plenum space is a void in a building designed to carry heating, ventilation,

and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Plenum space is typically a false
ceiling, though it could also be constructed as a raised floor. As it makes
installation simpler, this space has also been used for communications wiring
in some building designs. Plenum space is an effective conduit for fire, as
there is plenty of airflow and no fire breaks (such as walls or doors). If the
plenum space is used for heating, there may also be higher temperatures.
Therefore, building regulations require the use of fire-retardant plenum cable
in such spaces. Plenum cable must not emit large amounts of smoke when
burned, be self-extinguishing, and meet other strict fire safety standards.

General-purpose (non-plenum) cabling uses PVC (polyvinyl chloride) jackets

and insulation. Plenum-rated cable uses treated PVC or fluorinated ethylene
propylene (FEP). This can make the cable less flexible, but the different
materials used have no effect on bandwidth. Communications cable that is
plenum rated under the U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC) is marked CMP.
General-purpose cables are marked CMG or CM.

Cabling that passes between two floors is referred to as riser. Conduit for
riser cabling must be fire stopped. This means that fire cannot spread
through the opening created by the conduit. Riser cabling (in conduit or in
spaces such as lift shafts) should also conform to the appropriate fire safety
standards. These are similar to the requirements for plenum spaces but not
quite as strict. Data cable that is riser rated under the NEC is marked CMR.

You can use plenum-rated cables in place of riser-rated cables, but never use
riser-rated cables in place of plenum-rated cables. Both of these typically
include a rope or filament that helps support their weight when they're
installed vertically.

2.2.6 Coaxial and Twinaxial Cable and Connectors

Coaxial (or coax) cable is made of two conductors that share the same axis.
The core conductor is made of solid or stranded copper wire and is enclosed
by plastic insulation. A wire mesh wrapped around the plastic constitutes the
second conductor. This serves as shielding from interference.
Coax cable. (Image by destinacigdem © 123RF.com.)

Coax cables are categorized using Radio Grade (RG) designations, which
represent the thickness of the core conductor and the cable's characteristic
impedance. RG6 is 18 AWG cable with 75 ohm impedance typically used as
drop cable for Cable Access TV (CATV) and broadband cable modems.
Thinner, more flexible RG59 cable is used for audio/video and closed-circuit
television (CCTV). For these applications, coax can be terminated using
either a Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector or an F-type
connector. BNC uses a twist-and-lock mechanism, while F-connectors are
secured by screwing them into place.

BNC connector on the left. (Image created by Krzysztof Burghardt and

reproduced under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 license.)
F-type connector on the right. (Image created by Colin and reproduced under
the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 license.)

Twinaxial (or twinax) is similar to coax but contains two inner conductors.
Twinax is used for datacenter interconnects working at 10 GbE (unofficially
referred to as 10GBASE-CR) and 40 GbE (40GBASE-CR4). The maximum
distance is up to about 5 meters for passive cable types and 10 meters for
active cable types. Twinax for 10/40 GbE is terminated using Direct Attach
Copper (DAC) transceivers. These transceivers can be installed as modules
in switch, router, and server appliances.

2.3.1 Structured Cabling System

A structured cabling scheme is a standard way of provisioning cabled

networking for computers in an office building. The best known is the
ANSI/TIA/EIA 568 Commercial Building Telecommunications Wiring Standard.
ANSI/TIA/EIA 568 identifies the following locations or subsystems within a
structured cabling system:

 Work Area—The space where user equipment is located and

connected to the network, usually via a patch cable plugged into a wall
port.

Modular wall plate. (Image by Nikolai Lebedev © 123RF.com.)

 Horizontal Cabling—Connects user work areas to an intermediate

distribution frame (IDF). Horizontal cabling is so-called because it
typically consists of the cabling for a single floor and so is made up of
cables run horizontally through wall ducts or ceiling spaces. When
using copper cabling, the IDF must be within 90 m (295 feet) cabling
distance of each wall port. If this is not possible, multiple IDFs must be
provisioned. Multiple IDFs on the same floor are linked by horizontal
cross connects.
Description

Wiring distribution components. (Images © 123RF.com.)

 Telecommunications Room—Room or closet that houses an

intermediate distribution frame and networking equipment, such as
switches. Essentially, this is a termination point for the horizontal
cabling along with a connection to backbone cabling. This wiring closet
must be used only for networking equipment (not general storage) and
should ideally be secured by a lockable door.

 Backbone Cabling—Connects IDFs to a main distribution frame

(MDF). Backbone cabling is also referred to as vertical cabling, as it is
more likely to run up and down between floors.

 Entrance Facilities/Demarc—Special type of telecommunications

room marking the point at which external cabling is joined to internal
cabling, via the MDF. Entrance facilities are required to join the local
exchange carrier's (LEC's) network and for inter-building
communications. The demarcation point is where the access
provider's network terminates and the organization's network begins.
Smaller facilities might not require IDFs. If distance limitations are not
exceeded, wall ports can be terminated directly to a single main distribution
frame.

2.3.2 T568A and T568B Termination Standards

Twisted pair must be properly terminated. Patch cords are terminated with
RJ45 plugs, while structured cabling is terminated to insulation displacement
connectors (IDCs) in wall ports and distribution frames. When terminating
cable, an organization should use a consistent wiring scheme across all sites.

Each conductor in a 4-pair data cable is color-coded. Each pair is assigned a

color (blue, orange, green, or brown). The first conductor in each pair has a
predominantly white insulator with strips of the color; the second conductor
has an insulator with the solid color. The ANSI/TIA/EIA 568 standard defines
two methods for terminating Ethernet cabling: T568A and T568B. The
wiring for both standards is shown in the following figure.

Description

T568A and T568B wiring diagrams. (Images © 123RF.com.)

In T568A, the green pairs are wired to pins 1 and 2, and the orange pairs are
wired to pins 3 and 6. In T568B, these pairs swap places, so orange is
terminated to pins 1 and 2 and green to 3 and 6. Organizations should try to
avoid using a mixture of the two standards. T568A is mandated by the
residential cabling standard (TIA 570), but T568B is probably the more widely
deployed of the two.

Pin Wire Color (T568A) Wire Color (T568B) 10/100 Mbps 1/10/40 Gbps

1 Green/White Orange/White Tx+ BixA+

2 Green Orange Tx- BixA-

Pin Wire Color (T568A) Wire Color (T568B) 10/100 Mbps 1/10/40 Gbps

3 Orange/White Green/White Rx+ BixB+

4 Blue Blue BixC+

5 Blue/White Blue/White BixC-

6 Orange Green Rx- BixB-

7 Brown/White Brown/White BixD+

8 Brown Brown BixD-

Cat 7 and Cat 8 are so sensitive to noise that the secondary wire in each pair
is solid white with no stripe, as the coloring process reduces the
effectiveness of the insulation.

2.3.3 Patch Panels

Cable management techniques and tools ensure that cabling is reliable and
easy to maintain. Structured copper wiring runs from a wall port in the user's
work area to some type of distribution frame in the network closet. At both
ends, it is terminated at a punch down block with insulation-displacement
connection (IDC) terminals. An IDC contains contacts that cut the insulation
from a wire and hold it in place. This design allows large numbers of cables
to be terminated within a small space.

In data networks, numerous moves, adds, and changes (MACs) would require
re-terminating the wiring. To simplify MACs, a distribution frame is normally
implemented as a patch panel. This has punch down blocks on one side and
pre-terminated RJ45 modular ports on the other. This allows incoming and
outgoing connections to be reconfigured by changing the patch cable
connections, which is much simpler than re-terminating punch down blocks.

IDCs at the rear of a patch panel. (Image by plus69 © 123RF.com.)

The structured cabling running from the work area or forming a backbone is
terminated at the back of the patch panel on the IDCs, using either T568A or
T568B wiring order. An RJ45 patch cord is used to connect the port to
another network port, typically a switch port housed in the same rack. This
greatly simplifies wiring connections and is the most commonly installed
type of wiring distribution where connections need to be changed often.

2.3.4 Structured Cable Installation

Installing structured cable from a bulk spool is referred to as pulling cable

because the cable must be pulled, carefully, from the telecommunications
closet to the work area. Cable is normally routed through conduits or wall
spaces, avoiding excessive bends and proximity to electrical power cables
and fittings, such as fluorescent lights, as these could cause interference.
The main fixed cable run can be up to 90 m (295 feet). Stranded-wire patch
cords can be up to 5 m each (16 feet) and no more than 10 m (33 feet) in
overall length. This is because the attenuation of stranded cable is higher
than solid cable.

Starting at the patch panel, label the end of the cable with the appropriate
jack ID, then run it through to the work area. This is also referred to as a
drop, as in most cases you will be dropping the cable from the ceiling space
through a wall cavity. If several cables are going to roughly the same place,
you can bundle them and pull them together. Leave enough slack at both
ends (a service loop) to make the connection and to accommodate future
reconnections or changes, cut the cable, and label the other end with the
appropriate ID. Electrician's scissors (snips) are designed for cutting copper
wire and stripping insulation and cable jackets. Alternatively, there are
dedicated cable stripper tools that have replaceable blades for different
data cable types. Cable-cutting blades should be rounded to preserve the
wire geometry. Stripping tools should have the correct diameter to score a
cable jacket without damaging the insulation wires.

2.3.5 Termination Tools and Techniques

To terminate a cable, untwist the ends of the wire pairs and place them into
the punch down block in the correct order for the wiring configuration (T568A
or T568B) you want to use.

You must not untwist the wires too much. Cat 6 is demanding in this respect
and requires no more than 0.375" (1 cm) of untwisting.

Fixed cable is terminated using a punch down tool. This tool fixes
conductors into an IDC. There are different IDC formats (66, 110, BIX, and
Krone), and these require different blades. Many punch down tools have
replaceable blades, though. Blades are double sided; one side pushes the
wire into the terminal while the other side cuts the excess. Make sure the
blade marked "cut" is oriented correctly to cut the excess wire.

Alternatively, a block tool terminates a group of connectors in one action. For

a 110 format panel, a four position block is suitable for terminating 4-pair
data cabling.
Adding RJ45 terminals to a network cable using a punch down tool. (Image
by dero2084 © 123RF.com.)

A patch cord is created using a cable crimper. This tool fixes a plug to a
cable. The tools are specific to the type of connector and cable, though some
may have modular dies to support a range of RJ-type plugs.

For shielded and screened cable, termination must be made to shielded IDCs
or modular plugs. On an IDC, a metal clip placed over the exposed foil or
braided shield bonds the cable to the housing. A shielded modular plug has a
metal housing and is not terminated using a standard crimper. There are
several different designs, but all follow the principle of connecting the cable
shield to a bonding strip.

2.4.1 Fiber Optic Cable Considerations

The electrical signals carried over copper wire are subject to interference and
attenuation. Fiber optic signaling uses pulses of infrared light, which are not
susceptible to interference, cannot easily be intercepted, and suffer less from
attenuation. Consequently, fiber optic cabling supports higher bandwidth
over longer cable runs. Fiber optic cabling can be many kilometers long.
A single optical fiber is constructed from three elements:

 Core provides the transmission path, or waveguide, for the light

signals.

 Cladding reflects signals back into the waveguide as efficiently as

possible. The core and cladding can be made from glass or plastic. The
cladding is applied as a thin layer surrounding the core. While made of
the same material, the cladding has a different refractive index than
the core. The effect of this is to create a boundary that causes the light
to bounce back into the core, facilitating the process of total internal
reflection that guides the light signal through the core.

 Buffer is a protective plastic coating. It may be of a tight or loose

configuration, with the loose format using some form of lubricant
between the strand and the sheath.

In basic operation modes, each fiber optic strand can only transfer light in a
single direction at a time. Therefore, multiple fibers are often bundled within
a cable to allow simultaneous transmission and reception of signals or to
provide links for multiple applications.

There are many different outer jacket designs and materials suited for
different installations (indoor/plenum, outdoor, underground, undersea, and
so on). Kevlar (Aramid) strands and sometimes fiberglass rods (strength
members) are often used to protect the fibers from excessive bending or
kinking when "pulling" the cable to install it. For exposed outdoor
applications, a steel shield (armor) may be added to deter rodents from
gnawing the cable.

2.4.2 Single Mode Fiber and Multimode Fiber

Fiber optic cables are specified using the mode, composition (glass/plastic),
and core/cladding size; for example, 8.3 micron core/125 micron cladding
single mode glass or 62.5 micron core/125 micron cladding multimode
plastic. Fiber optic cables fall into two broad categories: single mode and
multimode.

 Single Mode Fiber (SMF) has a small core (8 to 10 microns) and a

long wavelength. It uses a laser to generate a near infrared (1,310 nm
or 1,550 nm) light signal. Single mode cables support data rates up to
100 Gbps and cable runs of many kilometers, depending on the quality
of the cable and optics. There are two grades of SMF cable; OS1 is
designed for indoor use, while OS2 is for outdoor deployment.
  Multimode Fiber (MMF) has a larger core (62.5 or 50 microns) and
shorter wavelength light (850 nm or 1,300 nm) transmitted in multiple
waves of varying length. MMF uses less expensive optics and
consequently is less expensive to deploy than SMF. However, it does
not support such high signaling speeds or long distances as single
mode and so is more suitable for LANs than WANs.

Optical transceivers for SMF are now only slightly more expensive than ones
for MMF. Consequently, SMF is often used for short-range applications in
datacenters, as well as for long-distance links. SMF still comes at a slight
price premium, but it provides better support for 40 Gbps and 100 Gbps
Ethernet standards.

MMF is graded by optical multimode (OM) categories, defined in the

ISO/IEC 11801 standard:

 OM1/OM2—62.5-micron cable is OM1, while early 50-micron cable is

OM2. OM1 and OM2 are mainly rated for applications up to 1 Gbps and
use LED transmitters.

 OM3/OM4—These are also 50-micron cable, but manufactured

differently, designed for use with 850 nm vertical-cavity surface-
emitting lasers (VCSEL), also referred to as laser optimized MMF
(LOMMF). A VCSEL is not as powerful as a laser type used for SMF, but
it supports higher modulation (transmitting light pulses rapidly) than
LED-based optics.

2.4.3 Fiber Optic Connector Types

Fiber optic connectors are available in many different form factors. Some
types are more popular for multimode and some for single mode.

Straight Tip

Straight Tip (ST) is an early bayonet-style connector that uses a push-and-

twist locking mechanism. ST was used mostly for multimode networks, but it
is not widely used for Ethernet installations anymore.
Two ST connectors. (Image by Aleh Datskevich © 123RF.com.)

Subscriber Connector

The Subscriber Connector (SC) is a push/pull design, allowing for simple

insertion and removal. It can be used for single- or multimode. It is
commonly used for Gigabit Ethernet.

Local Connector

The Local Connector (LC) (also referred to as Lucent Connector) is a small-

form-factor connector with a tabbed push/pull design. LC is similar to SC, but
the smaller size allows for higher port density. LC is a widely adopted form
factor for Gigabit Ethernet and 10/40 GbE.
2.4.4 Fiber Optic Cable Installation

Fiber optic can be installed in the same topology as copper cable using
distribution frames and switches. Long-distance cables are typically laid as
trunks or rings with repeaters or amplifiers between cable segments to
strengthen the signal.

With duplex fiber, strands are installed in pairs, with one strand for transmit
(Tx) and one strand for receive (Rx).

Fiber Optic Patch Cords

Patch cables for fiber optic can come with the same connector on each end
(LC-LC, for instance) or a mix of connectors (LC-SC, for instance). Duplex
patch cords must maintain the correct polarity, so that the Tx port on the
transmitter is linked to the Rx port on the receiver and vice versa. The
TIA/EIA cabling standard sets out a system of A to B polarity. Each element in
the link must perform a crossover, and there must be an odd number of
elements, such as two patch cords and a permanent link (three elements).

Description

Fiber patch cord polarity.

Most connectors are keyed to prevent incorrect insertion, but if in doubt, an

optical power meter can be used to determine whether an optical signal is
being received from a particular fiber.
Transmitted optical signals are visible as bright white spots when viewed
through a smartphone camera. This can be used to identify which adapter on
an optical interface is transmitting and which fiber patch cord is receiving a
signal from the other end of the cable.

Finishing Type

The core of a fiber optic connector is a ceramic or plastic ferrule that holds
the glass strand and ensures continuous reception of the light signals. The
tip of the ferrule can be finished in several formats. The two most popular
are:

 Ultra Physical Contact (UPC)—The faces of the connector and fiber

tip are polished so that they curve slightly and fit together better.

 Angled Physical Contact (APC)—The faces are angled for an even

tighter connection. APC cannot be mixed with PC or UPC.

It is important to match the finishing type when you are selecting a

connector type. APC finishing is often not supported by the patch panels,
transceivers, and switch ports designed for Ethernet.

Also, by convention, cable jackets and connectors use the following color-
coding:

Type Jacket Color Connector Color

OM1 Orange Beige

OM2 Orange Black

OM3/OM4 Aqua Aqua

SMF PC/UPC Yellow Blue

SMF APC Yellow Green

2.4.5 Fiber Distribution Panels

A modern build or refurbishment might replace copper wiring with fiber optic
cabling. Structured cabling links are installed in a manner similar to copper
cabling. However, to avoid the wear and tear damage associated with
continually reconnecting fiber optic cables, it's essential not to frequently
replace cable runs through conduit. Permanent cables are therefore routed
through conduit to wall ports at the client access end, and to a fiber
distribution panel at the switch end. To complete the connection, fiber
patch cables are used to link the wall port to the network interface card (NIC)
and the patch panel to the switch port.

2.4.6 Multi-Fiber Push On Connectors

Multi-fiber push-on (MPO) termination allows for low-footprint backbone

or trunk cabling. An MPO backbone ribbon cable bundles 12 or more strands
terminated to a single compact ferrule. MPO cables are usually prefabricated
and not typically field terminated. There are MMF and SMF variants.

MPO is mostly used to aggregate 10 Gbps or 25 Gbps lanes into a 40 Gbps,

100 Gbps, or 400 Gbps parallel optical link. Each lane normally requires two
fiber strands (send and receive). A 40 Gbps link comprising 4 x 10 Gbps
lanes therefore requires eight strands. MPO can terminate this type of
parallel optical link more efficiently than separate LC-terminated strands. An
MPO connector capable of carrying 24 or 32 fibers has the same footprint as
a duplex LC pair.
Multi-fiber push-on (MPO) patch cord. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Where there are multiple strands within a single cable, the strands are color-
coded (TIA/EIA 598) to differentiate them.

2.4.7 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

A duplex fiber channel link uses one transmit lane and one receive lane and
requires two fiber strands. Parallel fiber uses bundles of lanes working at 10
Gbps or 25 Gbps to implement 40 Gbps or 100 Gbps links. These channel
links require between eight and twenty strands.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a means of using one or two

strands to provision multiple channels.

Bidirectional Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Bidirectional (BiDi) transceivers support transmit and receive signals over the
same strand of fiber. This uses WDM to transmit the Tx and Rx signals over
slightly shifted wavelengths, such as 1,310 nm for Tx and 1,490 nm for Rx.
BiDi transceivers must be installed in opposite pairs, so the downstream
transceiver would have to use 1,490 nm for Tx and 1,310 for
Rx. Bidirectional wavelength division multiplexing (BWDM) links are
documented in Ethernet standards (1000BASE-BX and 10GBASE-BX).

Coarse and Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) supports up to 16

wavelengths and is typically used to deploy four or eight bidirectional
channels over either a single fiber strand or unidirectional channels over dual
fiber strands (one strand for transmit, the other for receive). Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) provisions greater numbers
of channels (20, 40, 80, or 160). This means that there is much less spacing
between each channel and that it requires more precise and expensive
lasers. CWDM and DWDM transceivers support multi-channel 1 G, 10 G, and
40 G Ethernet links. The transceivers must be installed in opposite pairs.

2.5.1 Rack Systems

Networking equipment should be installed within secure areas. Within a

building, these can be referred to as telecommunications closets, equipment
rooms, or server rooms. A whole facility dedicated to provisioning servers is
called a datacenter. All these spaces should be dedicated to appliance and
server installation and not used for other kinds of storage. They need
physical access controls so that only authorized persons are allowed entry.

Within a telecommunications closet, server room, or datacenter, equipment

is installed in racks. A rack is a specially configured steel shelving system
designed for standard-size equipment. Using a rack allows equipment to be
stored more securely and compactly than ordinary desks or shelving would
allow for. The concept of installing more computing appliances in a smaller
space is referred to as density.

Network appliances and server hardware designed for rack-mounting are EIA
standard 19" / 48.26 cm width. Each appliance can be screwed into the rack
directly. Nonstandard components, such as a tower server or monitor, can be
installed on shelves.
A server rack is a compact and secure installation option for servers and
networking appliances.

If there is little need to remove it for upgrades or maintenance, an appliance

can be screwed directly into the rack. However, devices are often mounted
on rail kits so that they can be slid out of the rack for hardware maintenance
and upgrades.

Rack height is measured in "U" units of 1.75" / 4.45 cm. Racks are sold in
heights from 8U to 48U. Rack-compatible equipment is designed with a
vertical height quoted in U so you can plan exactly how much vertical space
you require.

Most racks are designed to be freestanding, though smaller wall-mounted

cabinet units are also available. Freestanding racks can be bolted together in
rows. There should be about 3 feet (1 meter) clearance aisle for service
access and airflow. Multiple rows should be placed back-to-back not front to
back to maximize cooling. This is referred to as a hot aisle/cold aisle layout.

Rack-mounted appliances are usually designed with intake fans on the front
to draw in cool air and exhaust fans on the back to expel warm air. Some
switch models can be configured between port-side exhaust, where hot air
is expelled on the same side as the port interfaces, and port-side intake.
Port-side intake allows a switch to be installed with ports facing the front of
the rack, which might be better for some cable management scenarios.

A hot aisle/cold aisle layout ensures that hot air expelled from exhaust vents
does not contaminate cool air drawn in through intake vents.

Side panels and blanking plates should cover unused rack slots to improve
airflow. Each rack can be installed with lockable doors (front and rear) to
prevent unauthorized access to the equipment.

2.5.2 Humidity and Temperature

Environmental controls mitigate the loss of availability through mechanical
issues with equipment, such as overheating. Building control systems
maintain an optimum working environment for different parts of the building.
The acronym HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning) is often
used to describe these services. An HVAC uses temperature sensors and
moisture detection sensors (to measure humidity).

Servers and appliances are fitted with internal sensors to monitor conditions
within the device chassis. These can report problems such as excessive
temperatures within the device chassis, fan speeds, component failure, and
chassis intrusion to a monitoring system.

Description

CPUID's HWMONITOR app can report temperatures from sensors installed on

PC components. (Screenshot used by permission of CPUID.)

Sensors can also be installed to measure ambient environmental conditions

for a network rack or enclosure or within a server room or equipment closet.
The following environmental factors need monitoring:
  Temperature—High temperature will make it difficult for device and
rack cooling systems to dissipate heat effectively. This increases the
risk of overheating of components within the device chassis and
consequent faults.

 Humidity—More water vapor in the air risks condensation forming

within a device chassis, leading to corrosion and short circuit faults.
Conversely, very low humidity increases risks of static charges building
up and damaging components.

 Electrical—Computer systems need stable power supply, free from

outages (power failuress), voltage dips (under-voltage events), and
voltage spikes and surges. Sensors built into power distribution
systems and backup battery systems can report deviations from a
normal power supply.

 Flooding—There may be natural or person-made flood risks from

nearby watercourses and reservoirs or risks from leaking plumbing or
fire suppression systems. Electrical systems need to be shut down
immediately in the presence of any significant amount of water.

2.5.3Power Management

All types of network appliances require a stable power supply to operate.

Electrical events, such as voltage spikes or surges, can crash computers,
switches, and routers, while loss of power from under-voltage events or
power failures will cause equipment to fail. An under-voltage event is where
the voltage drops briefly, while a power failure is a complete loss of power
lasting seconds or more. Power management means deploying systems to
ensure that equipment is protected against these events and that network
operations can either continue uninterrupted or be recovered quickly.

Power Load and Voltage

The circuits supplying grid power to a rack, network closet, or server room
must meet the load capacity of all the installed equipment (plus room for
growth). Consequently, the alternating current (AC) circuits to a server room
will typically be higher capacity than domestic or office circuits (30 or 60
amps as opposed to 13 amps, for instance). They might also be run at a
higher voltage (240 VAC, rather than 120 VAC).
The power supply for each appliance has a wattage rating. For example, a
basic switch might be 20 watts, while a 1U server might be 200 watts.
Wattage is calculated as V(olts) * Current (Amps). To calculate the maximum
load for a rack, add up the watts used by each appliance power supply and
divide by the circuit voltage. For example, if a rack contains equipment that
draws 2,000 watts in total, and the circuit VAC is 240, the amperage is 8.3. A
single 30 amp circuit could supply three such racks.

If the circuits were 120 VAC, the amperage would be double. This is why
equipment room and datacenter facilities tend to use high voltage circuits.

Power Distribution Units

Each circuit might be run through a power distribution unit (PDU). A PDU
has circuitry to "clean" the power signal, provides protection against spikes,
surges, and under-voltage events, and can integrate with an uninterruptible
power supply (UPS).

On a smaller scale, PDUs are also available as "strip" sockets that can take a
higher load than a typical 13 amp rated strip. Such sockets are rack mounted
and can be oriented horizontally or vertically to allow for different cabling
and layout options. PDUs also often support remote power monitoring
functions, such as reporting load and status, switching power to a socket on
and off, or switching sockets on in a particular sequence.

Battery Backups and Uninterruptible Power Supplies

If there is loss of power, system operation can be sustained for a few minutes
or hours (depending on load) using battery backup. Battery backup can be
provisioned at the component level for storage device or array cache. The
battery protects any read or write operations cached at the time of power
loss.

At the system level, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) will provide a

temporary power source in the event of a power failure. UPS runtime may
range from a few minutes for a desktop-rated model to hours for an
enterprise system. In its simplest form, a UPS comprises a bank of batteries
and their charging circuit plus an inverter to generate AC voltage from the
direct current (DC) voltage supplied by the batteries. Different UPS models
support different power outputs and form factors—from desktop to rack
mounted depending on your needs.

2.5.4 Fire Suppression

Health and safety legislation dictates what mechanisms an organization must
put in place to detect and suppress fires. Some basic elements of fire safety
include the following:

 Well-marked fire exits and an emergency evacuation procedure that is

tested and practiced regularly.

 Building design that does not allow fire to spread quickly, by

separating different areas with fire-resistant walls and doors.

 Automatic smoke or fire detection systems, as well as alarms that can

be operated manually.

Fire suppression systems work on the basis of the fire triangle. The fire
triangle works on the principle that a fire requires heat, oxygen, and fuel to
ignite and burn. Removing any one of those elements provides fire
suppression (and prevention). In the United States (and most other
countries), fires are divided by class under the NFPA (National Fire Protection
Association) system, according to the combustible material that fuels the
fire. Portable fire extinguishers come in several different types, with each
type being designed for fighting a particular class of fire. Notably, Class A fire
extinguishers are designed to combat fires fueled by ordinary combustible
materials like wood, paper, cloth, and plastics. Class C extinguishers use gas-
based extinguishing and can be used where the risk of electric shock makes
other types unsuitable.

Premises may also be fitted with an overhead sprinkler system. Wet-pipe

sprinklers work automatically, are triggered by heat, and discharge water.
Wet-pipe systems constantly hold water at high pressure, so there is some
risk of burst pipes and accidental triggering, as well as the damage that
would be caused in the event of an actual fire. There are several alternatives
to wet-pipe systems that can minimize damage that may be caused by water
flooding the room:

 Dry-pipe—These are used in areas where freezing is possible; water

only enters this part of the system if sprinklers elsewhere are
triggered.

 Pre-action—A pre-action system only fills with water when an alarm is

triggered; it will then spray when the heat rises. This gives protection
against accidental discharges and burst pipes and gives some time to
contain the fire manually before the sprinkler operates.
  Halon—Gas-based systems have the advantage of not short circuiting
electrical systems and leaving no residue. Up until a few years ago,
most systems used Halon 1301. The use of Halon has been banned in
most countries as it is ozone depleting, though existing installations
have not been replaced in many instances and can continue to operate
legally.

 Clean agent—Alternatives to Halon are referred to as "clean agent."

As well as not being environmentally damaging, these gases are
considered nontoxic to humans. Examples include INERGEN (a mixture
of CO2, Argon, and Nitrogen), FM-200/HFC-227, and FE-13. The gases
both deplete the concentration of oxygen in the area (though not to
levels dangerous to humans) and have a cooling effect. CO2 can be
used too, but it is not safe for use in occupied areas.

2.6.1 Specification and Limitations

When troubleshooting a link, you will need to compare the expected

performance with the actual current performance. To do this, you must
understand how to assess and distinguish speed, throughput, and distance
specifications and limitations.

Speed Versus Throughput

At the Physical layer, a signal transmitted over a communications channel

consists of a series of events referred to as symbols. A symbol could be
something like a pulse of higher voltage in an electrical current or the
transition between the peak and the trough in an electromagnetic wave. The
number of symbols that can be transmitted per second is called the baud
rate. The baud rate is measured in hertz (or MHz or GHz).

At the Data Link layer, the nominal bit rate—or bandwidth—of the link is the
amount of information that can be transmitted, measured in bits per second
(bps), or some multiple thereof. In order to transmit information more
efficiently, a signaling method might be capable of representing more than
one bit per symbol. This also helps to overcome noise and detect errors. The
use of these encoding methods means that the bit rate will be higher than
the baud rate. In Ethernet terms, the bit rate is the expected performance of
a link that has been properly installed to operate at 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1
Gbps, or better.
The nominal bit rate will not often be achieved in practice. Throughput is an
average data transfer rate achieved over a period of time excluding
encoding schemes, errors, and other losses incurred at the Physical and Data
Link layers. Throughput can be adversely affected by link distance and by
interference (noise).

Throughput is typically measured at the Network or Transport layer. Often the

term "goodput" is used to measure an averaged data transfer rate at the
Application layer. This takes account of the effect of packet loss. Throughput
is also sometimes measured as packets per second.

As well as bandwidth or throughput and packet loss, the speed at which

packets are delivered is also an important network performance
characteristic. Speed is measured as a unit of time—typically milliseconds
(ms)—and is also referred to as latency, or delay.

The term "speed" is also used to describe how well or badly a link is
performing in terms of throughput but do be aware of the distinction
between bit rate and latency.

Distance Limitations, Attenuation, and Interference

Each type of media can consistently support a given bit rate only over a
defined distance. Some media types support higher bit rates over longer
distances than others. Attenuation and interference enforce distance
limitations on different media types.

 Attenuation is the loss of signal strength, expressed in decibels (dB).

dB expresses the ratio between two measurements; in this case, signal
strength at origin and signal strength at destination.

 Interference (or noise) is anything that gets transmitted within or

close to the channel that isn't the intended signal. This serves to make
the signal itself difficult to distinguish, causing errors in data and
forcing retransmissions. This is expressed as the signal to noise ratio
(SNR).

2.6.2 Cable Issues

When troubleshooting cable connectivity, you are focusing on issues at the

Physical layer. At layer 1, a typical Ethernet link for an office workstation
includes the following components:
  Network transceiver in the host (end system).

 Patch cable between the host and a wall port.

 Structured cable between the wall port and a patch panel (the
permanent link).

 Patch cable between the patch panel port and a switch port.

 Network transceiver in the switch port.

The entire cable path (patch cords plus permanent link) is referred to as a
channel link.
Verifying patch cord connections. (Image by Kjetil Kolbjornsrud ©
123RF.com.)

Assuming you are investigating link failure (complete loss of connectivity),

the first step is to check that the patch cords are properly terminated and
connected to the network ports. If you suspect a fault, substitute the patch
cord with a known good cable.

If you cannot isolate the problem to the patch cords, test the transceivers.
You can use a loopback tool to test for a bad port.

If you don't have a loopback tool available, another approach is to substitute

known working hosts (connect a different computer to the link or swap ports
at the switch). This approach may have adverse impacts on the rest of the
network, however, and issues such as port security may make it an
unreliable method.

If you can discount faulty patch cords and bad network ports/NICs, you will
need to use tools to test the structured cabling. The solution may involve
installing a new permanent link, but there could also be a termination or
external interference problem.

2.6.3 Cable Category Issues

When troubleshooting a permanent link, you should verify that the cable
type is appropriate to the application. For example, you cannot expect 10
GbE Ethernet to run over an 80 m Cat 5e link. You may also need to verify
that unshielded cable has not been installed where shielded or screened
cable would be more suitable. Using an incorrect cable type might result in
lower-than-expected speed and/or numerous checksum errors and link
resets. Check the identifier printed on the cable jacket to verify the type that
has been used.

When evaluating whether a cable category is suitable for a given use in the
network, consider the following factors:

 Cat 5e supports Gigabit Ethernet and could still be an acceptable

choice for providing network links for workstations, but most new
installations and upgrades would now use Cat 6 or better.

Unlike Ethernet and Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet uses all four pairs for
transmission and is thus more sensitive to crosstalk between the wire pairs.

 Cat 6 can support 10 Gbps, but over a 55 m maximum distance.

  Cat 6A is an improved specification cable that can support 10 Gbps
over 100 m. Cat 6A cable is bulkier than Cat 5e, and the installation
requirements more stringent, so fitting it within pathways designed for
older cable can be problematic. TIA/EIA standards recommend Cat 6A
for use in healthcare facilities, with Power over Ethernet (PoE) 802.3bt
installations, and for horizontal connections to wireless access points.

Cabling is not the only part of the wiring system that must be rated to the
appropriate category. For Gigabit Ethernet and better, the performance of
connectors becomes increasingly critical. For example, if you are installing
Cat 6A wiring, you must also install Cat 6A patch panels, wall plates, and
connectors.

 Cat 7 cable is always of a screened/shielded type and is rated for 10

Gbps applications up to 100 m (328 feet). Cat 7 is not recognized by
TIA/EIA but appears in the cabling standards created by the ISO
(ISO/IEC 11801). It must be terminated with GG45 or TERA connectors
rather than standard RJ45 connectors.

 Cat 8 is intended for use in datacenters only for short patch cable runs
that make top-of-rack connections between adjacent appliances. ISO
defines two variants; 8.1 (Class I) is equivalent to TIA/EIA Cat 8 and
uses RJ45 connectors while 8.2 (Class II) must use outer shielding or
screening and GG45 or TERA connectors.

From a safety point of view, you must also ensure that the cable jacket type
is suitable for the installation location, such as using plenum-rated cable in
plenum spaces and riser-rated cable in riser spaces.

2.6.4 Cable Testers

If the cable is not accessible, cable testing tools can also be used to diagnose
intermittent connectivity or poor performance issues. A cable tester reports
detailed information on the physical and electrical properties of the cable.
For example, it can test and report on cable conditions, crosstalk,
attenuation, noise, resistance, and other characteristics of a cable run.
Devices classed as certifiers can be used to test and certify cable
installations to a performance category—for example, that a network is
TIA/EIA 568 Category 6A compliant. They use defined transport performance
specifications to ensure an installation exceeds the required performance
characteristics for parameters such as attenuation and crosstalk.
A technician using a cable certifier. (Image by Wavebreak Media ©
123RF.com.)

Cable testing tools can be used for troubleshooting and verification. It is best
to verify wiring installation and termination just after you have made all the
connections. This means you should still have access to the cable runs.
Identifying and correcting errors at this point will be much simpler than when
you are trying to set up end user devices.

2.6.5 Wire Map Testers and Tone Generators

Fully featured cable testers/certifiers are expensive. A simpler wire map

tester device can be used to detect improper termination issues. To perform
a wire map test, the base unit is connected to one end of the cable and a
remote unit to the other. When the test is activated, an LED for each wire
conductor lights up in sequence. If an LED fails to light or does not light in
sequence, there is a problem with the cable and/or termination. Wire map
testers can identify the following problems:

 Continuity (open)—A conductor does not form a circuit because of

cable damage or because the connector is not properly wired.
  Short—Two conductors are joined at some point, usually because the
insulating wire is damaged, or a connector is poorly wired.

 Incorrect pin-out/incorrect termination/mismatched standards

—The conductors are incorrectly wired into the terminals at one or both
ends of the cable. The following transpositions are common:

 Reversed pair—The conductors in a pair have been wired to different

terminals (for example, from pin 3 to pin 6 and pin 6 to pin 3 rather
than pin 3 to pin 3 and pin 6 to pin 6).

 Crossed pair (TX/RX transposed)—The conductors from one pair

have been connected to pins belonging to a different pair (for example,
from pins 3 and 6 to pins 1 and 2). This may be done deliberately to
create a crossover cable, but such a cable would not be used to link a
host to a switch.

Another potential cable wiring fault is a split pair. This is where both ends of
a single wire in one pair are wired to terminals belonging to a different pair.
This type of fault can only be detected by a cable tester that measures
crosstalk.

A network tone generator (or toner) and probe are used to trace a cable
from one end to the other. This may be necessary when the cables are
bundled and have not been labeled properly. This device is also known as a
Fox and Hound. The tone generator is used to apply a signal on the cable to
be traced so that you can use the probe to identify the same cable within a
bundle or duct.

2.6.6 Attenuation and Interference Issues

If a cable link is too long, decibel (dB) loss (or insertion loss) may mean
that the link experiences signal degradation problems with high error rates
and retransmissions (frame or packet loss) resulting in reduced speeds and
possibly loss of connectivity. Insertion loss is measured in decibels (dB) and
represents the ratio of the received voltage to the original voltage.

A dB expresses the ratio between two values using a logarithmic scale. A

logarithm is a mathematical tool for performing complex multiplication and
division exponential operations as simpler additions and subtractions. The
essential point is that a logarithmic scale is nonlinear, so a small change in
dB value represents a large change in the performance measured. The
following reference points are useful to remember:
  +3 dB means doubling, while -3 dB means halving.

 +6 dB means quadrupling, while -6 dB relates to a quarter.

 +10 dB means 10 times the ratio, while -10 dB is a tenth.

For a longer primer on dB math, view the presentation at

internetsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/dB-Math.pdf.

The maximum value allowed for insertion loss depends on the link category.
For example, Cat 5e at 100 MHz allows up to 24 dB, while Cat 6 allows up to
21.7 dB at 250 MHz. When you are measuring insertion loss itself, smaller
values are better (20 dB insertion loss is better than 22 dB, for instance). A
cable certifier is likely to report the margin, which is the difference between
the actual loss and the maximum value allowed for the cable standard.
Consequently, higher margin values are better. For example, if the insertion
loss measured over a Cat 5e cable is 22 dB, the margin is 2 dB; if another
cable measures 23 dB, the margin is only 1 dB, and you are that much closer
to not meeting acceptable link standards. Higher grade or shielded cable
may alleviate the problem; otherwise, you will need to find a shorter cable
run or install a repeater or additional switch.

Careful cable placement is necessary during installation to ensure that the

wiring is not subject to interference from sources such as electrical power
cables, fluorescent lights, motors, electrical fans, radio transmitters, and so
on. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is something that should be detected
when the cable is installed, so you should suspect either some new source
that has been installed recently or some source that was not taken into
account during testing (machinery or power circuits that weren't activated
when the installation testing took place, for instance). Interference from
nearby data cables is also referred to as alien crosstalk.

Radio frequency interference (RFI) is EMI that occurs in the frequencies used
for radio transmissions.

2.6.7 Crosstalk Issues

Crosstalk usually indicates a problem with bad wiring (poor quality or

damaged or the improper type for the application), a bad connector, or
improper termination. Check the cable for excessive untwisting at the ends
and for kinks or crush points along its run. Crosstalk is also measured in dB,
but unlike insertion loss, higher values represent less noise. Again, the
expected measurements vary according to the cable category and
application. There are various types of crosstalk that can be measured:
  Near End (NEXT)—This measures crosstalk on the receive pairs at the
transmitter end and is usually caused by excessive untwisting of pairs
or faulty bonding of shielded elements.

 Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio, Near End (ACRN)—This is the

difference between insertion loss and NEXT. ACR is equivalent to a
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). A high value means that the signal is
stronger than any noise present; a result closer to zero means the link
is likely to be subject to high error rates.

 Attenuation-to-Crosstalk Ratio, Far End (ACRF)—Far-end crosstalk

(FEXT) is measured on the receive pairs at the recipient end. The
difference between insertion loss and FEXT gives ACRF, which
measures cable performance regardless of the actual link length.

 Power Sum—Gigabit and 10 GbE Ethernet use all four pairs. Power
sum crosstalk calculations (PSNEXT, PSACRN, and PSACRF) confirm
that a cable is suitable for this type of application. They are measured
by energizing three of the four pairs in turn.

 Alien Crosstalk—This is signal traffic from cables in close proximity

that causes interference to a disturbed or victim cable. This is
commonly caused by cinching a cable bundle with ties too tightly and
by poorly terminated cabling.

Complete loss of connectivity indicates a break in the cable (or a completely

faulty installation), while intermittent loss of connectivity is more likely to be
caused by attenuation, crosstalk, or noise.

2.6.8 Fiber Optic Cable Testing Tools

When you are working with fiber optic cabling, it is important to understand
that any mismatch between the cables coupled together will result in data
loss. This can occur if the fiber cables are not properly aligned, are different
sizes, or may have suffered damage (broken/misshaped fiber strands) during
transport. If you connect single mode fiber to multimode fiber, you will
introduce a catastrophic signal loss of up to 99%. Even connecting fiber
cables of the same type but with different diameters can cause a loss of up
to 50% of the signal strength.

Whenever a connector is installed on the end of fiber optic cables, a degree

of signal loss occurs. This is called insertion loss. In addition, some of the
light that is lost is reflected directly back down the cable toward the source.
This is called back-reflection, reflectance, or optical return loss (ORL). Ultra
Physical Contact (UPC) and Angled Physical Contact (APC) polishing reduce
ORL reflections, and reflectance loss values improve from UPC to APC. Mating
an APC connector to a non-APC port causes major insertion loss. Because of
this, APC connectors are always colored green to keep you from mixing them
with non-APC connectors.

Visual Fault Locator

If a break is identified in an installed cable, the location of the break can be

found using a visual fault locator. There are different models for short and
long link distances, and they can be supplied with adapters for different
connector types (ST, SC, or LC). The tool shines visible light down the cable
and glows brightly at the point where a cable is broken, excessively bent, or
improperly spliced.

Dirty Optical Cables

Dirt, dust, or grease in the transmission path will greatly reduce signal
strength or block transmission completely. Most commonly, this occurs at a
connector. Connectors should be covered with a dust cap when removed,
and the surrounding area should be dust free before performing a
disconnection. Connectors should be cleaned using solvent designed for fiber
optics, taking care not to apply excess solvent. The wet-to-dry method
applies a drop of solvent to a lint-free cloth and moves the connector from
the wet drop across a dry part. Contamination could also be introduced when
a cable is spliced. Ensure splicing equipment is cleaned according to the
manufacturer's instructions before every splice operation.

The powerful light sources used by fiber optics are a hazard. Wear
appropriate safety goggles, and never look directly at an active transceiver
port or the end of a fiber cable. Point a cable at a flat surface to confirm
whether visible light is being transmitted, or use a smartphone camera to
detect whether infrared light is being transmitted.

2.6.9 Cable Troubleshooting Strategies

Cable Troubleshooting Strategies

Sometimes, cables will fail. Your job will be to troubleshoot connection issues
and find the root cause. This can happen for many different reasons.
Common issues to network connections include physical damage to the
cable, loose connections, interference from other devices, and issues with
the network adapter or drivers. Let's look at steps we can take to
troubleshoot cable issues:

1. Physical Inspection

o Check the cable for any visible damage such as cuts, kinks, or
severe bends.

o Ensure that the connectors are not damaged and are securely
plugged into the network device and the computer.

2. Reseat the Cable

o Unplug the cable from both ends and then plug it back in. This
can resolve loose connection issues.

3. Verify Drivers

o If the problem persists, the issue could be the drivers or a

physical problem with the network adapter.

o Open Device Manager on your computer, find your network

adapter in the list, and check if it's working properly.

o If it is not working correctly, you may need to update the drivers

or replace the network adapter.