UNIT: 1 CELL TYPE

Contents
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 History and Origin
1.4 Basic Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
1.4.1 Prokaryotic Cells
1.4.2 Eukaryotic Cells
1.4.3 Differences between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Self Assessment Questions and Possible Answers
1.7.1 Multiple Choice Questions
1.7.2 Very Short Questions
1.8 References and Suggested Readings
1.9 Terminal and Model Questions

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1.1 Objectives
Study of this unit will let the students to:
• Define Prokaryotic cell;
• Explain the structure of prokaryotic cell;
• Write about Eukaryotic cell;
• Elucidate the structure of Eukaryotic cell;
• Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
1.2 Introduction

1.3 History and Origin

A cell was defined as “unit of biological activity delimited by a semi permeable membrane and

capable of self-reproduction in a medium free of other living systems” by Loewy and Siekevitz

(1963).

A structure containing a mass of cytoplasm surrounded by semi-permeable membrane called

plasma membrane is called a cell. It encloses cytoplasm, many cell organelles along with nucleus

or nuclear material. On the basis of organization of membranes, variety and structure of

cytoplasmic organelles and complexity of nuclear region, the cells are classified into two types:

Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell. These terms were suggested by Hans Ris in 1960s.

The study of cell has been made possible with the help of light microscope. Robert Hooke

(1665) with the help of light microscope discovered that a section of cork is made up of small

cavities surrounded by firm walls. He used the term “cell” for the first time to describe his

investigations on the “texture of a piece of cork”. Later on A. Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

observed various unicellular organisms and cells like bacteria, protozoan’s, red blood cells and

sperm etc. He observed nucleus in some erythrocytes and all this was made possible with the

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improved microscopes. In 1809, Mirble M. stated that all plant tissues are composed of cells. In

the same year, importance of cells in living organisms was described by J.B. Lamarck. Robert

Brown in 1831 observed nucleus in certain plant cells. Mimosa cells were boiled in nitric acid by

Dutrochet (1837) to separate the cells to conclude that all organic tissues are composed of

globular cells, united by simple adhesive forces. “All living organism are composed of cells” was

stated by Schwann, T. (1839) after examining a variety of animals and plant tissues.

Fig. 1.1: A Bacterial Cell

1.4: BASIC COMPONENTS OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL

1.4.1 Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells are the most primitive cells and have simple structural organization. It has a

single membrane system. They include bacteria, viruses, blue-green algae, mycoplasmas,

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rickettsias, spirochetes etc. Cyanobacteria or blue green algae are the largest and most complex

prokaryote, in which photosynthesis of higher plants type have evolved. Prokaryotes are

included in the kingdom Monera and the super kingdom Prokaryota. The Prokaryotes have the

following characters:

1. The size of prokaryotic cells ranges between 1 to 10 µm. They occur in a

variety of forms.

2. Prokaryotic cell consists of three main components:

(I) Outer covering: It is composed of inner cell or plasma membrane, middle cell wall and

outer slimy capsule.

a. Cell membrane: Cell membrane made up of lipids and proteins, is thin and

flexible and controls the movement of molecules across the cell. Respiratory enzymes are

carried by it for energy releasing reactions. Mesosomes, the in-folds of plasma

membrane bears respiratory enzymes and these are considered analogous to mitochondria

of eukaryotic cells. Similarly, the pigments and enzymes molecules that absorb and

convert the light into chemical energy in photosynthetic cells are also associated with the

plasma membrane’s in-folds called photosynthetic lamella. These lamellae are

analogous to the chloroplast of eukaryotic cells. Plasma membrane plays role in

replication and division of nuclear material. Since the in-folds remain continuous with

the cell membrane, they are not considered as separate compartments. Thus, prokaryotic

cell is non-compartmentalized.

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 b. Cell wall : It is a rigid or semi-rigid non-living structure that surrounds the cell

membrane and its thickness ranges between 1.5 to 100 µm. Chemically it is composed of

peptidoglycans. . Some bacteria such as mycoplasmas lack cell wall.

c. Slimy capsule: A gelatinous coat outside the cell wall is the slimy capsule. It is

composed of largely of polysaccharides and sometimes it may have polypeptides and

other compounds also. It protects the cell against desiccation, virus attacks, phagocytosis

and antibiotics

(II) Cytoplasm: Prokaryotic cytoplasm contains proteins, lipids, glycogen and inorganic ions

along with enzymes for biosynthetic reactions and ribosomes, tRNA and mRNA for protein

synthesis. Prokaryotic cytoplasm has some special features as follows:

a. It lacks cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi

apparatus, Centrosomes, vacuoles, Lysosomes, microfilaments, intermediate filaments

and microtubules.

b. The only cytoplasmic organelle found in prokaryotic cells is the ribosomes. They

are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes i.e., 70S and lie free in the cytoplasm. They

form poly-ribosomes at the time of protein synthesis. They are the sites of protein

synthesis.

c. Like eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cell does not show streaming

movement or cyclosis.

d. Gas vacuoles are also formed in some prokaryotic cells.

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 e. The cell does not show phagocytosis, pinocytosis and exocytose, substances enter

and leave the cell through the cell membrane.

f. They may contain deposits of polysaccharides or inorganic phosphates.

(III) Nucleoid: Nuclear envelope is absent in prokaryotic cell and the genetic material lies

directly into the cytoplasm. Such nuclear material is known as nucleoid. Nucleoid consists of

greatly coiled single pro-chromosome. It shows the following special features:

a. A short and simple pro-chromosome is present which is attached at least at one

point on cell membrane.

b. Mostly there is single copy of chromosome, the prokaryotic cell is haploid.

c. The DNA is naked as it is not associated with basic histone proteins. It is double

stranded, helical and circular.

d. The amount of DNA is lesser than eukaryotic cell and it codes fewer proteins.

Replication of DNA is continuous throughout the cell cycle. Transcription and

translation occurs in cytoplasm and processing of mRNA is not required.

e. The processes like meiosis, gamete formation or fertilization are absent.

Conjugation is seen in some bacteria.

f. Mitotic apparatus absent.

g. There is no nucleolus.

h. Cell membrane folds or mesosomes help to segregate the replicated products of

chromosomes into daughter cells.

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 3. Plasmids: In some prokaryotic cells, in addition to nucleoid, a small circular

double stranded DNA molecule is present. It is called plasmid. Plasmids have 1000 to

30,000 base pairs and they generally encode proteins required by the organism to resist

antibiotic and other toxic material.

4. Flagellum: It is a whip like locomotory structure found in many bacteria. It is

150Å thick and 10 to 15µm long. As the flagellum does not have any surrounding

membrane, it grows at the tip.

It has two main parts: Filament and basal body.

(i) Filament- Filament extends out of cell into the medium and it is

composed of many intertwined spiral chains of the subunits of a protein called

flagellin. Flagellin differs from actins or tubulin.

(ii) Basal Body- The basal body attaches the flagellum to the cell and

generates the force to rotate it. It is composed of many components and numerous

proteins. It has two parts: shaft and hook.

5. Pili: These are short, rod like non-motile processes or fimbriae present on many bacteria.

These are formed of pilin protein. They are usually less than 10 nm thick. They help in

attachment of bacteria to surfaces or food or to one another. Tubular sex Pili are present in some

bacteria.

Prokaryotic cells have all the biochemical mechanisms required to synthesize complex organic

materials from simple organic precursors necessary for life. Thus, inspite of being simple in

structure prokaryotes are more versatile in their synthetic activities than eukaryotes.

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1.4.2 Eukaryotic Cells

The internal organization of eukaryotic cell is more developed than prokaryotic cells from which

they are believed to have been evolved. They are evolved to have double membrane system.

Primary membranes are the one that surrounds the cell, celled cell or plasma membrane and the

secondary membrane surround the nucleus and other cellular organelles. Eukaryotic cells occur

in protists, fungi, plants and animals. Eukaryotic cells have the following characteristics:

1. Number- In multicellular organisms the numbers of cells are correlated with the

body size. The human blood contains about 30 quadrillion (3 × 1015) corpuscles and a 60

kg human being has about 60 × 1015 cells. All multicellular organisms begin their life

with a single cell “Zygote” and then become multicellular by its mitotic division during

development.

2. Shape- A cell may be spherical, cuboidal, oval, disc-like, polygonal, columnar,

spindle like or irregular. Thus, cells acquire a variety of shapes not only in various

organisms but also in different tissues of the same organism. The shape of cell is

correlated with its functions like the shape of muscles and nerve cells are well adapted to

their functions. Many factors such as cell functions, age of cell, presence or absence of

cell wall, viscosity of cytoplasm etc. are responsible for various shapes of cells.

3. Size- Most of the eukaryotic cells is microscopic and their size ranges between 10

to 100µm. Sporozoits of malaria parasite (Plasmodium vivax) is among the smallest cells

having the size equal to 2µm long. While the Ostrich egg measures 175 × 120mm. Nerve

cells are the longest having the size of its fiber to be of few meters long. Human cells

generally range from 20 to 30µm.

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 4. Components of a cell- Three main components of the eukaryotic cells are cell

membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. The cytoplasm and the nucleus further have several

components. Various cell components are discussed below:

(i) Cell membrane- Cell membrane, plasma membrane or plasmalemma is a thin

elastic living covering that surrounds the cell keeping the cell contents in place, provides

shape to the cell and controls the transfer of materials across it. It is composed of lipid-

protein complex. It lacks respiratory enzymes. In many protists and animal cells it allows

endocytosis and exocytosis.

In certain protists, many fungi and all plant cells, the cell membrane is covered by a thick, rigid

non-living cell wall that protects and supports the cell. In prokaryotes the cell wall surrounding

the plasma membrane has a different structure in comparison to eukaryotes.

(ii) Cytoplasm- The cytoplasm or the cytosome is a semi-fluid, homogeneous,

translucent ground substance known as cytoplasmic matrix or cytosol which is present

between the cell membrane and the nucleus. In the protozoan cell the outer firm layer of

cytoplasm is called ectoplasm and the inner layer around the central fluid mass is called

the endoplasm. The cytosol shows “cyclosis” or the streaming movement. The eukaryotic

cytoplasm has the following features:-

a. Organelles: The organized structures having the specific functions and capacity of growth and

multiplication in some cases are known as organelles. Mitochondria, centrosomes, Golgi bodies,

plastids and vacuoles are the organelles that can be observed under light microscope, while

endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments and

micro bodies can only be seen under electron microscope. These organelles are often described

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as protoplasmic structures. The cells having cilia or flagella have their basal bodies at the bases

are in the cytoplasm while rest of its part extends out of cytoplasm. These organelles are

described as follows:

I. Mitochondria: The rod like or globule shaped structures scattered in the

cytoplasm are found singly or in groups. They are bounded by double membrane of

lipoproteins. The inner membrane gives out finger like structure known as cristae which

partially subdivide the inner chamber of mitochondrion. On the inner surface of cristae

are present mushroom like structures, oxysomes that are related to phosphorylation. The

space between the membranes and its lumen is filled with mitochondrial matrix. Both

the membranes and the matrix contain many oxidative enzymes and coenzymes. Since

mitochondria contain DNA molecules and ribosomes, they synthesize certain proteins.

They produce the energy and reserve it in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Due to the presence of its own DNA and ability of protein synthesis along with its

duplication, the mitochondria are called semi autonomous organelle. The DNA of

mitochondria resembles that of bacterial cell; hence it is also called as endo-symbiotic

organelle.

II. Centrosomes: (9+0) there is a clear zone around centrioles, near the nucleus, that

includes a specialized portion of cytoplasm, called centrospheres. Its matrix is called

kinoplasm that bears two rounded bodies the “centrioles”. Each centriole consists of nine

fibrillar units and each of them is found to contain three microtubules arranged in a

circle. Both the centrioles are arranged at right angle to each other. Centrioles form the

spindles of microtubules at the time of cell division. Centrioles are absent in plant cell

and the spindle is formed without their help.

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III. Golgi bodies: These are the stack of flattened parallel-arranged sacs and vesicles

found in association of endoplasmic reticulum. They are composed of many lamellae,

tubules, vesicles and vacuoles. Their membranes are supposed to be originated from ER

and are composed of lipoproteins. In plant cells the Golgi complex is called dictyosome

that secretes required materials for the formation of cell wall at the time of cell division.

It helps in the formation of acrosome of sperms, release of hormones, enzymes and other

synthetic materials.

IV. Plastids: These organelles are found in plant cells and are absent in animal cells.

They may be colored like chloroplast or chromoplasts or colorless like leucoplast. Since

the leucoplast store and metabolise the starch and lipids, they are called amyloplast and

lipoplast respectively. Chloroplast contains the green pigment the chlorophyll that helps

in photosynthesis and protein storage. Chloroplast has a double outer membrane, the

stroma, that bears many soluble enzymes, and a complex system of membrane bound

compartments called thalakoids constituting granna. Like mitochondria, chloroplast

also has their own DNA, ribosomes and complete protein synthetic machinery. Hence

these are also called endo-symbiotic and semi-autonomous organelle.

V. Metaplasm: The particles like vacuoles, granules and other cytoplasmic bodies

such as ribonucleoprotein molecules are represented by it.

VI. Cilia, basal bodies and flagella: Cilia are the minute structures covering the

surface in some cells. Both cilia and flagella originate from the basal bodies or

blepharoplast lying in cytoplasm. They consist of nine outer fibrils with the two larger

fibrils in the centre. Each fibril consists of two microtubules, or has 9+2 arrangement.

Cilia and Flagella are the structure born by certain cells. They are composed of

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microtubules made of the protein tubulin. They have 9 + 2 plan of microtubule. Both

grow at the base. They act as locomotory organelles, moves by their beats or undulations

for they get the energy by breakdown of ATP molecule.

VII. Microtubules: The ultra fine tubules of protein (tubulin) traversing the

cytoplasm of plant and animal cells providing the structural framework to the cell,

determine the cell shape and general organization of the cytoplasm are known as

microtubules. Tubules are made up of 13 individual filaments. Microtubules help in

transport of water and ions, cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis) and the formation of

spindles during cell division.

VIII. Basal granules: The spherical bodies found at the base of cilia and flagella are

called the basal bodies. Each of them is composed of nine fibrils and each fibril consists

of the three microtubules, out of which two enter the cilia or flagella.

IX. Ribosome’s: Ribosome is the minute spherical structures that originate in

nucleolus and are found attached with the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum and in the

cytoplasm. They are mainly composed of ribonucleic acids (RNA) and protein. They

are mainly responsible for protein synthesis.

b. Inclusions: These are the non-living or deutoplasmic structures which are

incapable of growth and multiplication. Common cell inclusions are stored organic

materials such as starch grains, glycogen granules, aleuron grains, fat droplets, pigment

granules and inorganic crystals.Cytoplasm is stores raw materials needed for the

metabolism in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Many metabolic processes like

biosynthesis of fatty acids, nucleotides, proteins and oxidation take place in cytoplasm. It

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distributes the nutrients, metabolites and enzymes in a cell and brings about exchange of

materials between the organelles as well as with the environment or extracellular fluid

also.

c. Nucleus: In a eukaryotic cell the genetic material is enclosed by a distinct

nuclear envelope that forms a prominent spherical organelle the “Nucleus”. The nuclear

envelope bears pores for the exchange of materials between the cytoplasm and the

nucleoplasm.

Fig. 1.2: An animal cell as shown by electron microscope

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1.4.3 Differences between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells
The internal organization of eukaryotic cell is more developed than prokaryotic cells from
which they are believed to have been evolved.
S. No. Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

1. A prokaryotic cell is surrounded by a A eukaryotic cell is surrounded

single membrane layer. by a double membrane layer.

2. In most cases the cell wall surrounds Cell wall is present in protists,
the plasma membrane and it is most fungi and plants and is
composed of carbohydrates, lipids composed of chitin in most
proteins and certain amino acids. fungi and or cellulose in
others.
3. Respiratory enzymes are present on cell Absent on the cell membrane
membranes.

4. Thalakoids occurs free in cytoplasm. They occur within the

chloroplast.

5. Cytoplasm lacks organelles like All the cell organelles are

centrosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, present in the cell along with
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes.
microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
microtubules and micro bodies. While
ribosomes are present

6. Gas vacuoles may occur while sap Sap vacuoles are commonly
vacuoles are absent. present.

7. 70S ribosomes are present that lie free 80S ribosome’s are present,
in cytoplasm or attached to mRNA. either free or bound to ER and
nuclear envelope or mRNA.

8. Endocytosis and exocytose do not These processes take place in

occur. many protists and in animals.

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9. Process of meiosis or gamete In these cells the process of
formation or true fertilization does meiosis, gamete formation and
not occur. true fertilization occur in most
cases of sexual reproduction.

10. Cells are haploid. Cells are diploid, while haploid

cells also occur.
11. Nuclear envelope is absent and Nuclear envelope surrounds
nuclear material lie in cytoplasm the nuclear material. The
and is called nucleoid. Nucleoid structure is called nucleus. It
contains a single chromosome. contains two to many
chromosomes.

12. Nucleolus absent. One or more nucleoli are

present within the nucleus.

13. Circular DNA is present without Nuclear DNA is linear and is

associated proteins. associated with proteins, while
extra nuclear DNA is present
without proteins.

14. Flagella if present are simple, Flagella, if present are

consist of a single fibril and are complex, have 9+2 pattern of
formed of a protein flagellin. microtubules formed of a
protein tubulin.

15. Plasmids and pili occur in many These structures are absent.
prokaryotic cells.

16. Most prokaryotes are asexual Most eukaryotes are sexual

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1.5 SUMMARY

Robert Hook (1665) for the first time described the texture of a piece of cork as “cell”. Similar

structures were observed by many scientists while studying many living organisms. It was

Schwann T. (1839) who stated that all living organisms are composed of cells after examining a

variety of plant and animal tissues. Basically two types of cells are there, “Prokaryotic” and

“Eukaryotic”. Prokaryotic cells are the primitive cells that include bacteria, blue-green algae,

viruses and photosynthetic cells cyanobacteria etc. Their size varies from 1 to 10 um and they

consist of mainly three components: the outer covering that includes all cell membrane, cell wall

and a slimy capsule. Another component is cytoplasm which lacks cell organelles except

ribosomes. The processes like phagocytosis and endocytosis are absent. The third component is

nucleoid that lacks nuclear membrane. Additional small circular DNA the plasmid may also be

present. Flagella and pili like structure are also seen in some prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells

are more developed and are surrounded by double membranes. Shape and size of these cells and

their number in multicellular organisms varies. It is also composed of three main components.

Cell membrane or plasma membrane is a thin elastic living covering. The cytoplasm is a semi

fluid, homogenous, translucent consisting of many cell organelles, inclusions, cilia, flagella,

basal bodies and microtubules.

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1.6 GLOSSARY

Cytoplasm: Gel like substance enclosed within the cell membrane excluding nucleus.

Plasma membrane: It is the biological membrane that separates the interior of the cell from the

outside environment.

Prokaryote: The cell that lacks a distinct nucleus and other specialized membrane bound

organelles.

Eukaryote: an organism whose cell contains a membrane bound distinct nucleus along with

other specialized organelles enclosed in membranes.

Mesosome: The in-folding of plasma membrane in some bacterial cells that carry respiratory

enzymes.

Poly-ribosome: It is a group of ribosomes associated with a single messenger RNA during the

translation process.

Phagocytosis: The process by which a cell engulfs a solid particle to form an internal vesicle

known as phagosome is called phagocytosis, also called eating of cell.

Pinocytosis: The process of intake of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the

cell membrane is called pinocytosis, also called drinking of cell.

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Exocytosis: In the process of exocytosis materials are exported outside the cell by using energy

from ATP molecules.

Conjugation: When the genetic material is transferred from one bacterial cell to other either by

direct contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells is called conjugation.

1.7:- Self Assessment Questions and Possible Answers

1.7.1 Multiple Choice Questions:

1. There is no organized nucleus in:
(a) Bacterial cell (b) Green algae cell
(c) Animal cell (d) Plant cell
2. The prokaryotic cells are characterized by:
(a) A distinct nuclear membrane (b) Absence of chromatin material
(c) Distinct chromosome (d) Absence of nuclear membrane
3. In a prokaryotic cell, DNA is:
(a) Enclosed by nuclear envelop (b) Lacking
(c) Not a genetic material (d) without a membrane
4. Cell wall is found around the:
(a) Prokaryotic cells (b) Algal cells
(c) Plant cells (d) All the above
5. Chemical energy of food stuffs is converted into biologically useful forms
by:
(a) Ribosomes (b) Golgi complex
(c) Mitochondria (d) Plastids

6. Sun radiant energy is converted into chemical energy of organic

compound by:

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 (a) Mitochondria (b) Chloroplast
(c) Ribosomes (d) Centrosomes
7. Which structure is present only in animal cell?
(a) Cell membrane (b) Lysosomes
(c) Centrioles (d) Ribosomes
8. Single envelope system is characteristic of:
(a) Prokaryotic cell (b) Eukaryotic cell
(c) None (d) Both
9. Prokaryote and eukaryotes have the common:
(a) Mitotic apparatus (b) Histone
(c) Genetic code (d) Mitochondria
10. Unicellular microscopic organisms were first studied by:
(a) Robert Hooke (b) Priestley
(c) Pasteur (d) Leeuwenhoek
ANSWERS:-
1. (a) 5.(c) 9. (c)
2. (d) 6.(b) 10.(d)
3. (d) 7.(c)
4. (d) 8.(a)

1.7.2 Very Short Questions:

1. What are prokaryotes? Give an example.

2. What are eukaryotes? Give few examples.
3. Cell is an open dynamic system. Is it correct?
4. Prokaryotic cells are haploid. Is it so?
5. What are cyanobacteria?
6. Give three essential characteristics of cell?

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 7. Where is nucleolus found?
8. What are the power houses of the cell?
9. Name the protein factories of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
10. What is the control centre of a cell?

Answers
1. Organisms without an organized nucleus e.g., Bacteria
2. Organisms with an organized nucleus. Plants, yeast;
3. Yes
4. Yes
5. Blue green algae
6. Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nuclear material
7. Nucleus
8. Mitochondria
9. Ribosome
10. Nucleus

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