Power System Operations and Control

Prof. S.N. Singh

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Module – 3
Lecture – 8

Welcome to lecture number 8 of module 3. In the previous lecture that is lecture number
7 we modeled exciter as well as amplifier in that modeling. Basically; in this lecture 7
and 8 we are trying to see how we can control the voltage. And already I discussed the
various ways to control the voltage, the various elements those are generating and
absorbing the reactor power.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:53)

So, in the modeling part already we have seen model of amplifier of the AVR loop. We
also saw the modeling of your exciter and we from modeling exciter, I said that we can
𝐾𝑒
have a transfer function here and that is your transfer function of exciter that is .
1+𝑠𝑇𝑒

Please note that here there are several other limiting values even though we have not
considered this exciters and saturation effect.

So, this is a simple model. So, that we can see in the lecture that we can see the
performance of we can say static as well as the dynamic performance of this a AVR
loop. However, for the detailed modeling if you are using computers etcetera then, you
can go for the all the effects that is non-linearities limiters as well as the saturation effect.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:37)

Now, another major component in this AVR loop is your generator; now, we can see
here mainstream model of this amplifier. We had the comparator, we modeled this
𝐾𝑒
amplifier as an amplifier gain ; again this Ka depends upon which type of amplifier
1+𝑠𝑇𝑒

you are using. We are using the rotatory amplifier, you are using static amplifier. Then
gain value is decided accordingly and then we model your this exciter model and we
𝐾𝑒
represented and now, this is going to the field voltage of your main alternator and
1+𝑠𝑇𝑒

then we have to model that.

So, the generator modeling here as I said in the basic diagram of your complete a AVR
loop we saw that here your this armature that is 3 phase. Here it is the supply and the
field winding which was coming here it was rotating and this is your basically, your VF
which is coming from the exciter. So, here we can write if the current which is flowing in
the field winding is IF and if we are having this winding will have let us suppose Rf is
the resistance of field winding and this Lff is the self inductance of this winding. And if
you are having because there’s some mutual coupling between the field winding and the
armature winding that, I can denote with a Lff means, it is the inductance between the
armature and the field that is mutual coupling.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:32)

So, for this circuit we have this VF and we can relate with the If here with this equation
𝑑𝐼𝑓
means the voltage here will be equal to your 𝑅𝑓 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐿𝑓𝑓 . Now, we have one relation
𝑑𝑡

here this excitation voltage a voltage that is generated in the terminal. Here the internal
voltage we are talking this Ef is no doubt it is your x.That’s you can say ω here, this ω is
this, that is 2πf. f is the frequency and 1 is the mutual coupling between a armature and
the field winding divided by under root 2 (∆E =∆V= ωLaf / √2) into your change in field
current.

So, here we have written in the different form. Now, from our the previous equation here
means if you can take the laplace transform and we can write in the difference form, we
can write here the change in your Ve f will be equal to your ∆V(s)= (Rf + Lfs) and here,
I can say it is your If. So, this is your equation we can write here and already from this
equation we have related that, If is related with the Ef. So, from there we can put its value
of If from the previous equation we can get this relation here. That relates you’re here,
this is you are the voltage of the field and that is coming from the exciter. Exciters the
armature that, is rectifier this voltage and that is coming to the d c to your field winding.
So, this is a change in the voltage this is written in the difference form and all we are
adding the difference form to see the behavior of the system. Now, whole this we can
represent here suppose Rf is multiplied here, Rf we can divided here, then Rf will be
going there. So, we can write this complete the transfer functions here. Now, why I have
′ ′ 𝐿𝑓𝑓
written 𝑇𝑑0 . The 𝑇𝑑0 = , when your armature is open circuited there is no current or
𝑅𝑓𝑓

𝐿𝑓𝑓
something flowing there. Then this time constant of the field here this is called the
𝑅𝑓𝑓

tdo prime.

If you measure the time constant if you are ignoring this Laf; In fact, then it should be
open your armature winding, there will be no induced current there. So, we can write the
𝐿𝑓𝑓 ′
time constant of the field winding here your . So, it is𝑇𝑑0 . So, we can represent this
𝑅𝑓𝑓

for you generator model and your Kf. That is gain we can write here ωLaf /Rf. Now, we
had the 3 modelings that is your amplifier. We have now amplifier. We model exciter
and now we model the generator as well; with the help of this basically these are the 3
elements in your a AVR loop.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:25)

So, here we can now again thus we can add this generator field here in fact, your field
exciter modeling amplifier and this is your comparator and then, we have you know this
reference is coming from the again this voltage that is measured here and that, is
compared with your Vf here, that is your reference value. This terminal voltage is going
to be compared. So, this is a closed loop with unity feedback here H is normally, you can
say if normally we are having here some function h; that is feedback transfer function
and in this case this s H is nothing, but your unity. So, if you can combine completely
here and I can write this g s is nothing, but the total open loop. Normally it is called open
𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
loop transfer function is nothing but normally it is called Gol(s) = (1+𝑠𝑇 ′ ,.
𝑎 )(1+𝑠𝑇𝑒 )(1+𝑠𝑇𝑑0)

So, we are having this transfer function here this one; now, the closed loop transfer
function will be nothing but, here I can say this Gcl(s) will be your G(s), it is already we
have written as G(s)/(1+GH).. So, I can write here G(s); Now, this is your complete your
closed loop transfer function and then here. You’re the reference value is now coming
here and we are getting your the terminal voltage. Now for this closed loop, we have to
see the performance. The performance that includes your static as well as dynamic
performance.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:17)

′
Let us see here, under the normally when your generated is not loaded then the 𝑇𝑑0
′
which ,we had considered that is 𝑇𝑑0 if it is not loaded, but once it is loaded we are taking
current, then that value is normally modified. The Td0 at the load here Xd is the transient
time direct axis reactance and here x external and then, we can from this value we can
get the Td0 with the load. So, the static performance means we have to go for the 2
performance. one is a static, another is a dynamic.
First let us see, the dynamic and then we have to decide the gain because gain is very
important, that basically gains gives your information about, the static error and also that
gives about your dynamic performance, whether your system is stable or not. So, here
again, I can summarize the basic objective of this control loop that, it must regulate the
terminal voltage to within required static accuracy limit means how much we want.
Suppose your reference is changed means for example, your reference is changed by x
percent. What is you r change in your output voltage means; what is the error between
these two means, if it is we are changing x percent here the reference value this must also
change x percent, then you can say a steady state error is 0.

So, we try to minimize that, this if you are changing let us suppose if you are initially it
was 1 per unit now you are changing from 1 per unit to a reference 1, 0.5; this value
here should also change to 1.05 and the difference should be change in that value, then
we can say, there’s a 0. So, otherwise if there is some error; normally we go for some
accuracy. It is not possible that we can go for the 0 percent accuracy.

If accuracy is 1 percent 1 percent means, 0.01 per unit it is sometimes that is desirable.
We will see why accuracy if you are going for more accuracy sometimes it is very tough
and your system loop may be unstable. So, that is, one criteria; second criteria is have
sufficient speed of response means, your response should be very fast means your
settling time should be less than your settled. If there is some step change here, in the v
ref. Here your v ref, you can change then it must your output should be changed here.
And it is to be settled very quickly and other criteria that, you hold this AVR loop must
be stable. If it is unstable, then it will create chaos and then if you want to do something
it will do something; so, these are the basic criteria.

Now, let us see the static response and let us say we need the accuracy of x percent, x
may be 0, x may be 1, x may be2 percent. So, here this x now, what is this x; now, we
can define here the final that is your change in the v reference by to the change in the
steady state voltage of this 1. You should remember here, this we had your change in
your v ref. Here this is, coming your change in the voltage of your terminal voltage and
here we got the Gcl; that is closed loop transfer function.

So, here in your steady state your output means; what is the input change? So, I can say
it is your y that is the change in here as I have written that, y is change in the reference
value. If you are changing certain y component your what is your change in this value
during the steady state condition, because if you are changing suddenly as I said, it will
take some different value, but we are concerned about the steady state and this is you r
called Vss, we want. So, this Vss input minus your output divided by input here, that
should be less than or equal to x percent means x upon 100. If you want that 100, then
we can say it is equal to x upon100, but if your accuracy needs we can say x percent
means your system here error.

So, always less than that or it will be equal to that value; so, we want x percent accuracy.
So, we can decide this accuracy in this way. Here the change in Vss is your steady state
voltage. Now, let us see for our case if you are changing the V reference, how the gain is
related with this accuracy.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:40)

To see this here let us take, there is a step change in your input means your reference you
have changed here is your y magnitude means; we have changed suddenly y magnitude
and this is your change in Vref. Here this is your time; so, if you are taking this as a unit
step input and for that, the laplace transform if you are taking will get this here change in
the Vref that is s domain is equal to y/s. Your output from your equation here this 1 will
be equal to this reference, change in the Vref multiplied by your closed transfer function.

So, here I have written this Gcl∆Vref. So, here this Gcl is not e l, It is cl multiplied by y
into s and we know this our limiting value theorem. That the final steady state value, in
this voltage Vss will be the Lts→0 s∆Vs Now, we can see now our 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓 ; I have let us
suppose I take as here K value. So, what we are getting; now, the closed loop transfer
function will be before coming here how I got it; we require this, Vs in terms of these
values.

So, what we are getting; now, you remember this is your Gcl; s is nothing but, your Gs.
This is the (1 / Gs). This Gs is the combined that is amplifier exciter as well as your
generator model. So, here I can write this K upon various vector; that is, 1 plus Tas 1
plus Tes and here, multiplied by 1 plus Tdos divided by 1 plus here K. Again 1 plus Ts,
Tas amplifier. Here your this and we are getting 3; Finally, what we are getting,you can
𝐾
see here, . So, we are getting this is your Gcl.
′ )
𝐾+(1+𝑠𝑇𝑎 )(1+𝑠𝑇𝑒 )(1+𝑠𝑇𝑑0

Now, what we are doing this ys just we are multiplying here. So, this complete value we
are going to write here into y upon s into s and s tends to 0. So, what happens? This is
cancelled out and all this we are putting as 0, so, this is 0, this is 0, this is 0 and finally,
what we are getting? We are getting plus 1. So, we are getting K = y (1 + K). Here it is
unity this value is completely. So, we are getting this and now I have written here you
can remember here, this Ky/ (1 + K). into your y value. Now, this is your Vss.

Now, if we are using in our definition which I defined here that, this is your accuracy this
is defined as accuracy. So, I can put that value here and then, I can write y minus K upon
1 plus k into y upon y. It should be less than equal to x upon 100 here. Now, you can
simplify here. What happens; this y will be cancelled out here y y. So, we are getting 1
upon K plus this and finally, we can simplify here. We are getting this 1 upon 1 plus x
upon 100. So, we can reverse this means we can send this side here and this side here.

100 100
So, we will get this (1 + 𝐾 ) ≥ 𝑥−1 or I can say, (𝐾 ) ≥ 𝑥−1. Now, let us suppose you are

having x is equal to 1; 1 percent. So, how much we are getting for 1 percent the K should
be 99. So, you can say this is this x is equal to 1 percent means, x is equal to 1 we are
putting and then, we are getting K > = 99. Now, if you are going for x is equal to 2
percent, what is this is a 200 upon 2 minus 1 is 49; so, must be greater than 49.

This shows that, if you want to more accuracy your gain must be larger. You have to go
for the larger gain. For example: if you are using x is equal to 0.05 percent or you can
say 0.1 percent; let us what will be this value. This 0.1 here you are putting the thousand
minus this. So, K must be greater than your 9999. So, for more accuracy gain must be
larger and then, there may be possibility with the larger gain. Gain means; it is a gain for
multiplication of these entire 3 components Ka, Ke and Kf, then for the larger gain you
can see, for the 0 percent; what happens? Virtually 0 if you are putting 0 here this value
is infinite.

So, you should require very large value of K and which is sometimes not possible. It is
not possible to realize though infinite gain. So, this normally is we are going up to
certain accuracy we can say our system is statically error is 0. Now, let us see our
dynamic performance of this and the dynamic performance just we have to go for. We
will see now, the various criteria are there to see the dynamic performance of this
system.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:41)

So, let us see our dynamic performance dynamic response here, the closed loop transfer
function of this whole AVR loop can be written; again I derived also K/(K+1) plus here
′
your amplifier. It is for and it is for your Tf or you can say write 𝑇𝑑0 . Hardly matters
′
because Tf is the field winding time constant and that is your 𝑇𝑑0 we have used. To see
the dynamic response normally the various criteria are there because the gain, we want to
see for what value of K our system will be stable.

So, to see first one is that, normally we go for routh criteria and the routh criteria is
basically, the necessary condition and it depends upon the characteristic equation of the
system. Now, what will be the characteristic equation? Here we can write now this; here
this denominator of this closed loop transfer function must be 0. So, we can say the
characteristic equation here the qs. Here it is nothing, but your 𝐾 + (1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑎 )(1 +
′
𝑠𝑇𝑒 )(1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0 ).

So, this is your characteristic equation and this if we are equating 0 and then, we are
going for the routh criteria and the routh criteria you must know, here we write if this is
of order n although this is order 3 only. For the general I can write here, if you are
writing for xn, then we write the coefficient corresponding to s n minus 1and so on. So,
on and then finally, s and s 0 means that, is a constant and we see here we form this
criteria and see the first here the column and that gives you the necessary condition. It is
not sufficient. It is giving necessary condition.

So, if there is no change in the sign of the first column no change here in the sign, means
if all are negative. If all are positive these coefficients of this first column then, it gives
the absolute then it is called absolute stability. Only the problem here it does not provide
the relative stability means relatively your system is stable. Let us suppose you are
having your is the system of boundary of stability. You are here. How far from your
unstable zone.

So, it is not providing the relative stability so, that how much gain we can go for. Then
we normally go for another one that is root locus technique. Root locus technique is
nothing but, it is the locus of roots they location of poles varies from 0 to infinite. Means
here, if k changes from 0 to infinite how the roots are varied because, the roots of here
the first criteria that here k is varying. Then what happens? The root of this characteristic
equation will change.

Normally here the 3 order system is there; you can say s s s cube will be there. So, third
order system in this case, is appearing and what we can do always this s should be here
the negative plus minus some imaginary part and I can say some coefficient alpha and
here you can say ω. So, this must be negative in all the cases, but by varying case there is
a possibility that this may go in the positive side and system will be unstable. So, this
root locus technique gives information if you are changing gain, how the roots are
changing, whether they will cross to your left hand plane s plane or they will in the same
plane. So, we can decide the gain and it will give the relative stability as well
(Refer Slide Time: 22:37)

To see that; let us see 1 example: we can the Ta is equal to time constant of amplifier is
very fast because, let us take the static amplifier 0.2; that exciter time constant here 05
and the Tdo prime let us take it is unity. So, if you put these values then our
characteristic equation, which was here and we can now we can write with this value
putting this we can simply, we can write this characteristic equation in this form . And
you can see, we are having the order 3 means we will get 3 roots of this equation.

Now, from here we can now see the open loop poles are this one means for example, you
can see what we are getting. This 1 upon 1 plus 0.2 s for your for your amplifier for your
exciter we are getting 1 plus 0.5 s and your generator, it is 1 over 1 plus s. So, poles are
here when you are putting this is equal to 0. So, here s is equal to minus 1. Here if you
are putting s is equal to minus2 and here if you are putting 0 then we are getting s is
equal to minus 5.

So, we are getting open loop poles 5.2 and 1 corresponding to these 3 and then we have
to draw this root locus and we will decide it. So, from here what we do? First criteria are
that normally here we go for we draw root locus technique. Here your s plane, here it is
your 0 and then, we mark the open loop poles and the poles are denoted by x and the 0s
are decided by 0. So, here it will be let us supposing 1; so, I can say 1 will be here.
Another is your 2 I can say here the2 and another is here 3, 4, 5; this is you 5.
So, it is minus 5 minus2 and here it is minus 1.So, their 3 open loop poles are there, 0s
are the numerator. This upper part of the characteristic closed loop that will be that one.
So, here now know that, there are the various roots means root locus ad the movement of
here means from once K 0. Let’s suppose this K is 0. We are getting this one and they
are nothing but, if you solve we are getting these are the loops.

So, when K is 0 means we are starting at this point here K is equal to 0. Here also your K
is equal to 0 and this value also K is equal to K is 0, but we want to change k means from
0 to infinite then, we will see how they are changing, once K are 0 they are lying here
and it is your open loop. Now, the movement here always this criteria says that is here,
always if you are adding 0 then, your poles and if it is even then odd then it will be going
in your left hand side.

So, here it will be moving like this direction; here it will be moving like this direction.
So, this will be going in this direction, this will be going in this. Here it will be going in
the different direction because they will be merging and they will be moving together.
Now, for that we normally decide; now, here there will be some breakeven point that,
these2 where they will go even increasing means there will be one point, they will go
somewhere else and then, what will be their point of here leaving point that they will
leave and what will be the angles, at which they will be moving.

So, that angle normally decided that where they will lead it is normally decided by the
plus minus 1 aT upon 2. It is your 90 degree, again depends upon here thus the number
of 2 there is no 0s. So, they will be leaving at the 90 degree somewhere. So, the poles
here they will be moving here. Now, what will be the asymptotes where the angle they
will be moving. It is decided by your point where we can draw the axis that will be
decided by all these poles divided by 3.

So, minus 5 minus 2 minus 1 divided by 3 and it is nothing but, your minus 2.3. So, that
value here we are taking 2.3 and this is and we have to now decide the angle. Angle will
be the 60 degree here. So, these 3 axes will be there 2.3 here. Now, this will be leaving at
the 90 degree here and then this will be changing. Here it will be the 90 degree. Now,
what will be this point of that, where it will leave this real axis. That is basically decided
𝜕𝐾
by taking this = 0; to know this what we have to do. We have to just differentiate t
𝑑𝑠

his characteristic equation here and then, we will get the value of that.
 𝜕𝐾
For that, if you are differentiating this here means we are getting 10 𝑑𝑠 = 0if you are

differentiating with the s here is a 3𝑠 2 + 16𝑠 + 17 = 0. Here it is this is a constant, and

then differentiation of this will be 0. Now, we know that this value is 0 means, we are
getting here this is equation, t hat is a 3𝑠 2 + 16𝑠 + 17 = 0 and if you are solving here
this is a quadratic equation and then, we will get here s is equal to nothing but, your
minus 16 plus minus here under root I can do go for 16 square minus 12 into 17 divided
by, your 6 and the finally, we will get the value here minus 0.5 and here, we will get the
minus something four or something 3this is not possible.

So, only this value is the breakeven point where this breaking is leaving this one leaving
point. It will be between minus 1 and minus2, because this value is coming here that is
not true. So, this is not valid only we are getting. So, they will be leaving here in the
intermediate of these points. So, it is the point here it is your 1.5 minus here and they will
be leaving at the 90 degree and finally, here the movement will be like this. So, this will
be your root locus, while changing the K here. This is your characteristic that is going
here means this will be moving by movement of your K and this value is going here.

So, k from 0 if you are increasing this 1 here your loop poles is moving in this direction.
other roots 2 roots are going in this 1.Now, you can see once we are increasing this is
crossing your imaginary axis here and once it has crossed means, your system will be
unstable. So, the value of gain here that is your gain critical means, always your gain
must be less than this. Otherwise it will be unstable unless until you are going for some
compensation technique.

So, here we have to determine what the value will be for let us suppose for this time
constants to obtain this we have to do. We have to find the intersection of the imaginary
section and that can be done by going for here, the open loop poles means we have to see
when it is changing and that we can use nothing but, your we can go for using your routh
criteria, for that and in that criteria what we can do. We can simply we can form this s
cube s square s and s naught.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:06)

So, to obtain the value of k we have to go for your routh criteria and here we can write
the again equation that we obtained that is x3 here plus it was your 10K. If you
remember plus x3 here 𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 17𝑠 + 10𝐾 = 0. and for this equation we can just
write your routh criteria. So, x cube here is 1; your x now minus 1 the even; now, we are
writing here s now it will be 17 for the second column. Here for the second your the
second row of first column here it is your 8 this value square, then we are getting here
10.

Now, this is not only 10 because this is also constant. So, we are getting our (10 + 10K).
Now, s1 is now calculated from here means we have to calculate this and the divided by
that value. Then we are getting here 17 here, it is simply s, this value is now we do not
have that value. So, that value is calculated and that value is calculated this
multiplication of this divided by this value and we can get, that value here is your (10 +
10K)/8 and here we are getting nothing but, your (10 + 10K).. Now, to obtain that value
what we can do, that this value must be greater than 0 no doubt. What we do?

Normally this minus this value is calculated and this value is here what we get 17, we
calculate here this multiplied by this minus this multiplied by this we are getting (10 +
10K)/8 and this value will be 0 here we are having 0; so, we are getting. So, what we
have to see for the routh criteria the first column here, it should be positive and let us see
when, the sign is going to change means here we are first criteria that here we can say
(10 + 10K); So, will be greater than 0; here it should be greater than all the here positive
it must be positive.

So, here we are getting K should be greater than minus 1and that is always true. For
another condition here, from this 1 you should be also positive. So, I can write the 17, 8
8 will be divided minus here (10 + 10K)/8 >0. Let us suppose for the 0 what the value
was 0 means, we are at the axis. If it is not 0 means we are just below, this imaginary
axis here as I said we are the so, k value is less here. If it is positive then, we are here
somewhere, but if it is 0 we are here. If it is more means sign change and system is
unstable and we are here.

So, for the 0 we can calculate this is your nothing but, it is multiplied by here 17 into 8.
This is your 6 136 minus 10 minus 10K is equal to 0 or you can say is your k is nothing
but, 12.6. Now, you can see here the gain value if for this time constant it is more than
that, then your system will be unstable. Means here you can see this value K if more this
term, will be negative means there will be sign change and it will be crossing your
imaginary axis, but in the static we saw for the same time constant because it was not
related with the time constant gain at that time.

So, the K here accuracy 1 percent we saw K we required 99 x is equal to 2 percent. We

saw k we require 49 gain and we saw x is equal to 0.1 percent here K was 9900 and 99
means, if you are going for more accuracy gain is more, but here it is now may change
may cross this. For you can say your gain is equal to for this k we can determine what
will the accuracy as well no doubt we can represent.

So, it is for the time constant give you dynamic response and this value decides the
stability means, you can if you are increasing the gain more than this. You will be no
doubt you will get the more accuracy static accuracy, but your system AVR loop will be
unstable. Again now, we can also determine what will be the pole or root where it will be
means here I obtain the K value that k is here we calculated.

Now, I want to know what will be the here s value. What will the root? What will be the
magnitude where it is crossing means; we have this characteristic if you remember? This
is an 1 is here crossing here it was moving like this and going like this. So, I want to
know that, this value of s here and that can be obtained by the auxiliary function.
Auxiliary function is nothing but, what is the function here that we can form. So, at this
point x K we have calculated. So, I can write this a s just below that, above that it is 0.

So, we have to take this function and that will give the system oscillation that, will also
get what will be the root at that time k is equal to your 20.6. So, it is your 8 s square plus
here if you are putting the value of k is equal to 12.6 here. It is 136 is equal to 0 or you
can say s is equal to s square is equal to your minus 17 or you can say s will be plus
minus here under root 17.

So, we are getting the values of here s is equal to this top 1 is plus j under root 17 and
here it will be minus j under root 17. So, we got the here root also. We got the gain also
and then we saw that both are contradictory to each other.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:06)

So, let us see now overall that is you’re that root locus plot. This is your complete s
plane where this is your real axis. This is your imaginary axis and we saw, that this x
′
relates that the pole at x is equal to −1/𝑇𝑑0 .. This was related to your generator here this
pole was your exciter (1/Te )and this pole was for your Now, once the gain is moving
here the d is cross points the gain is equal to 0.That is called open loop gains. Now, if
you keep on changing your gain then the movement as I said, it will go at a point they
will move here it will move at a.
So, it is an 8 point. If you are again increasing the gain you will reach to b point and this
will be here, it is going in this way and it is reaching here and the system is stable, but
again if you are increasing the gain let us suppose, c point then your gain from b it can
cross the axis here and then, your system will be your AVR will be unstable. So, then we
find that crossing here is called your critical gain crossing and the root here that, gives
your oscillating system will start oscillating even though I has this point. Although it has
not crossed, but your system will start oscillating and then, this factor is small
perturbance disturbance may lead to your system unstable.

So, we have to decide our gain up to this point even though below that and our system
will reach stable. So, this is our without any compensation technique without any way to
improve the stability of this loop and we find that gains was very less to 12.6; it is very
less and for this your steady state error will be very high. So, what we have to do because
the static gain we require more gain. So, we have to do some compensation and then, we
can improve the stability of the loop and that let us see what are the various ways to
improve are.

So, we observe that the stability and the accuracy are conflicting, hence for both we use
the compensator, means; we can improve the accuracy for going for higher gain at the
same time how we can improve the stability of the loop. So, the compensators that are
now available.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:30)

Here I can say compensator; the 2 types of compensators are there. 1 is your series and
another is your shunt and no doubt we also have shunt, basically it is nothing but, it is
called your feedback, feedback controller’s feedback compensation. In series we have
the different types. We always you know it; it is your lead compensator. It is your lag
compensator; it may be your lead and your lag compensator. Again the lead compensator
here is used to improve the stability of the system.

The lags here compensator is used to reduce the steady state error and if you are using
lead lag then, it will both your improve your static error as well as it will improve your
stability of your system. Normally, the lag compensator here it is nothing but, it is some
sort of here it is resistance here your resistance here is, your capacitance and this is your
is your compensator for you lag compensator. For your lead compensator it is nothing
but, it is your resistance then put the capacitor in parallel with this and here it is your
resistor R2 and this will give you means this is your R1, R2; here C here your R1and R2
and it is C.

So, this is your nothing, but your lead compensator and if you are combining both, then
we can get lead lag compensator. Now, the feedback here the feedback compensator is
used to improve the robustness or the more stiffness of the load variation and always we
use here, we are talking about the positive feedback. So, the feedback controllers are also
1 way. Now, let us see how it can improve the system stability. For example: let us add a
series phase lead compensator means, we are using in the series first 1 and the transfer
function here, let us suppose (Tr =1 + Tcs.) Now, you can remember our open loop
transfer function that was your Goc open loop s. It was your 𝐾 + (1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑎 )(1 +
′
𝑠𝑇𝑒 )(1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0 ).

Now, you are using the series then it will be multiplied means we are having this your g
open loop and now, we are using some here that, T r that is a compensator and then we
are having a this loop. Normally we put this one here this side because the output here is
simply voltage. So, if your will be multiplied here and now we are getting let us suppose
1 plus t c that is the time constant of compensator and here. What we can do? We can set
the value of this Tc in such a fashion that, we can cut any of any of our poles here we can
cancel here the open loop poles here.

For example: as I said the Te which are having a 0.5 here we had the time constant 1 and
here we had the time constant as 0.2. Now, if you are putting the Tc is equal to is 0.5
then what will happen. This and this will be cancelled out and if you will draw here, this
root locus here again now what now we are having in this plane. We are having 1 of
course. This is for the Tdo prime and then we are having for your amplifier it is your
somewhere it is minus 5 here minus 1 here.

Now, what will happen? If we draw this here we will find that the poles here if your
gains are increasing here they will leave at the 90 degree and we will find this type of
characteristic. So, after changing it will be again starting from K is equal to 0 here and it
is moving here K is your infinite. So, now you can say this after doing this compensation
this is not crossing at any time. This imaginary axis; so, your system is always stable
even you can go for the larger value of your gain and if you are going for your larger
value of gain your by static error will be minimum.

So, you can see with this using this type of compensation that is series lead we have used
and our system is improved and stability is very much improved here. Another is your let
us see the feedback. In the feedback it has also some great advantage that, it is very
robust and also it provides more stiffness to the load variation. If load are changing also
there will be less effect.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:40)

What here normally we do? If again I can model this is your generator this we are having
here the 3 phase power that, is your taking here and this is your field winding and this
field winding is basically through your exciter. Here exciter and this exciter is nothing
but, your 3 phase power generation again is another alternator and the field to this we are
giving from your is field and this field current is coming through your amplifier. If you
remember, this was nothing but, your ∆VR here and this field it is your generator or
alternator there 3 phase power supply is going.

Now, here we have another basically we have the comparator means we measured, again
you could remember this suing the pt. This is a potential transformer means voltage we
are measuring and this is now, given to your rectifier circuit means we are getting some
Dc voltage and this Dc voltage again is compared with the comparator and then, we are
here getting v reference value and this is coming your change in e.That’s error.

Now, here we are using some let us suppose the series here we are using some series sort
of compensator and this is value is coming here and this here we are having another
winding. Let us suppose here and then we are this is related with the feedback I can say.
So, here we are giving a feedback that is here some editor here. We are adding the
positive feedback here means, we are adding this is a from this block. This is adder f of
x.
Now, here we are having your ∆Vst; that is some voltage is generated is thus we are
taking here and let us suppose, this is the winding is in R l and M that is mutual coupling.
So, I can write the ∆VR will be equal to your (Ri + L di/dt). Here this voltage here in this
circuit here your I is coming and you can write this and finally, we can write in laplace
form. Your (R+Ls)I(s) again, it is change in the I s and now this ∆Vst it is nothing but, I
can write this (Mdi/dt). The mutual coupling between these2 though this Vst is generated
and then we are adding together here.

So, again I can write this Vst laplace domain it will your m here and then we can replace
this value from here taking laplace means we can take m into your change in I s and this
value is here we can write. So, we are getting M/(R+Ls) or this is your Vr or we can say
here, simply we are getting the Kst the gain + (1 / Ts) and we are getting here change in
Vr. So, this is your time constant and this is nothing, but the Tst, It is your (l / R) and your
Kst it is your M / R.

So, these are the gains and the time constant of this feedback and then with this we can if
you are putting there because Tst is very small and if you are putting then, we can also
improve the stability of the system. So, in total you can say this is your feedback means
we can improve the stability either using the series or with the shunt or that is called the
feedback and we are using here the positive feedback and it will improve. You can now
out this one in this feedback and then you can analyze you will find again, we can by
changing this value of m and n or we can change the feedback because you can say this
gain is directly related with your m upon r.

So, m the mutual coupling we can change we can have the winding in such a way R is
the resistance always the resistance is very less because if you are putting more
resistance there will be huge loss. So, this is your feedback controller; now, let us
comeback to this whole your AVR loop where, we previously ignored certain things and
we ignored your basically, your excitation compensation techniques and now I will
explain that.

So, just I discussed that we can go for series compensation. That’s lead compensator
because we have to improve the stability stability is the major concern for us. So, we can
use the series compensation also we can go for the feedback controllers always we saw
the feedback how it can be done.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:33)

So, if you remember in our lecture number 7 we had this brushless AVr loop and I cut
the2 transfers functions here Gs and your Gf. Now, this Gs is coming from there. So, this
Gs is nothing but, it is your series compensation. If you are adding any series
compensator that is a lead compensator then, this block will be added in the series of
your this transfer function means series transfer function your amplifier, transfer function
exciter transfer function and of course, the generator field constants. So, these four will
be added.

If you are using feedback and you are not using this then you can see again I explained
this feedback that is Gf and Gf already we modeled that Gf in that fashion. So, this is your
feedback and if you are going for your feedback as well as Gs then, all these two
components will be varying. As I said the feedback is required to provide the robustness
and more stiffness to the load disturbance and always we use the positive feedback. So,
we can use this one along with the series because that improves the stability upgrade.

We saw the even for our larger even though infinite value of gain very high value of gain
it is not crossing the imaginary axis and the loop AVR loop will be stable. So, to recap
here what we did in our for the AVR loop in the our first and that is lecture number 7; I
model this your amplifier means we solve and reactive power generators means voltage
control. Here then we find various components then we saw the AVR loop. Then again
we model our amplifier with this one and I did not consider much only I just take the
first order the transfer function that is amplifier gain 1+sTa. The time constant and gain
are basically, depends upon which type of amplifier you are using.

You are using amplidine amplifier, you were using static amplifier. The gains are
changed accordingly if you are using static then gain can be very higher, but for others it
may be not so the time constant also if you are using static gain amplifier then the time
constant is very less. Now, so, another just we went for exciter modeling and then we
saw the exciter that’s we can have our transfer function like this. This Ke/(1+sTe) and
then, in this whole exciters and model we ignore the limiters because this value is also
having some limiters in the Vr means, your Vr cannot have all the values.

So, we can have limiters and then we can of course, we model this and we ignore the
saturation because again it is a rotating type of excitation means it is machine saturation
effect because saturation effect will also take into the picture. So, this was your transfer
function here and now what I can see; we can now, we compared now amplifier then
exciter we model and then, that is Vf which now went for your generator modeling and
this is your Vf and we came here. Normally we did not consider here the value of the
limiter as I said. We can have the limiters here and also we can, with this limiters we can
regulate the value of Vr and also we can take the saturation effect. That will be another
loop in the here excitation, that’s feedback loop will be coming.

Next then we model we modeled our this generator and the generator transfer function
we write here the Kf / sT and we had the complete loop and then we derived the closed
loop transfer function. What we did we static performance static performance we saw in
terms of accuracy how much accuracy you want. And then you found that accuracy for
higher accuracy the gain must be larger. For lower accuracy gain must be less, then we
saw the dynamic response. In that dynamic response we analyzed this closed loop
transfer function and the routh criteria is one way that, will give you necessary condition,
but it is not sufficient it is does not provide the relative stability information.

So, we normally we went for the root locus technique which gives the plot of the root
from varying gain from 0 to infinite and then, we take 1 example here with this one by
taking the your amplifier time constant 0.2 exciter 0.5 Tdo is 1 and then, we analyze this
complete and we found that our whole this root locus is varying like this and finally, at
certain value it is certain critical gain it will crossing and then your system will be
unstable. So, we have to use some stability improvement techniques means some
compensations are there is 2 types of compensation whether it is series or feedback.

In series there’s various one; it is lead lag or lead lag together, then feedback and the lead
is used because it used to improve the stability of the system and we also saw, if one of
the pole here we can cancel this, it will be here. Simply it will be vertical axis and it will
not cross the imaginary axis.So, the system will be purely stable.

We also just went for feedback loop and then, if you are using feedback that will provide
you robustness and more stiffness to your load variation and then we can go for the
combination of both type of controllers and then, here this includes your complete your
AVR loop. Now, in this next lecture we also discuss the various types of other facts.
Basically, the reactive power controllers apart from which we discuss in lecture number
7 and8 that we will be using some sort of devices and using the power electronic devices
we can use the static compensators.

So, that is we are changing the reactance value whenever it is required; that’s svc it is
called static compensators. There are other devices like stat com static synchronous
compensators and others like, controllers we will discuss in next our next lectures. How
they can improve the performance of the system in terms of voltage control. For the
voltage control and also for, you power flow control or improving the stability of the
system these devices are very much useful and that we will see in lecture number 9.

Thank you.