Signals and Systems

Chapter 1—Part I
Jau-Jr Lin
2024 Spring

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 Outlines
• Signal? System?
• System examples.
• Signal examples.
• Signal operations.

Signal? System?
1.1 What is a signal?
A signal is formally defined as a function of one or more variables that
conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon.
1.2 What is a system?
A system is formally defined as an entity that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding new signals.

Figure 1.1 (p. 2)

Block diagram representation of a system.

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 Signal? System?

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Why digital communications?

數位通訊系統架構示意圖。
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 Signal? System?

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訊號與系統

訊號與系統 通訊

控制 數位訊號處理

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 Big Picture of This Course
時域 傅立葉 頻域
Fourier
Frequency
Time domain
domain
CH1 & CH2 CH3 & CH4
Representations of Signals Representations of Signals
Operations (systems) Operations (systems)

Communication
systems CH6
Laplace transform
CH5 CH7
Representations of Signals Z-transform
Operations (systems)

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Big Picture of This Course

時域 傅立葉 頻域
Fourier Frequency
Time domain
domain

類比 取樣 離散
Sampling
Analog Discrete

量化
Quantization

Digital

數位
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 NCUE EE Courses in
Communication Areas
*訊號與系統 通訊導論 機率與統計
（大二下） （大三/大四上） （大二/大三上）

RFID與物聯網概論 無線通訊系統 數位通訊導論

（大三/大四下） （大四上） （大三/大四上）

*訊號與系統為必修，每年開課。其餘科目為選修，每兩年開課一次。

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System examples

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 System examples

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類比/數位轉換原理

 取樣與保持：將原始類比資料逐一擷取，取樣頻率
越高則訊號越不易失真，亦即解析度越高。
 量化：量化的目的則是將取樣所獲得的資料以『0』
與『1』的組合給予編碼，編碼的位元數越高則解析
度越高，轉換信號越接近實際之類比信號。

取樣與保持 量化

類比∕數位轉換過程
著作權所有 © 2004 王國禎、余文俊
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System examples

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System examples

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System examples

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System examples

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System examples

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Signal examples

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Signal examples

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Signal examples

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 Signal examples

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Signal examples
• 1. Continuous-time and discrete-time
signals
• 2. Even and odd signals
• 3. Periodic and nonperiodic signals
• 4. Deterministic signals and random
signals
• 5. Energy signals and power signals

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 Signal examples
1.4 Classification of Signals
Parentheses (‧)
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
Continuous-time signals: x(t) Fig. 1-11.
Discrete-time signals: x  n   x( nTs ), n  0,  1,  2, ....... (1.1) where t = nTs
Fig. 1-12. Brackets [‧]

Figure 1.12 (p. 17)

(a) Continuous-time signal x(t). (b) Representation of x(t) as a
discrete-time signal x[n]. 29

Signal examples
2. Even and odd signals Symmetric about vertical axis
Even signals: x( t )  x(t ) for all t (1.2) EX: x (t )  cos(t )
Odd signals: x( t )   x(t ) for all t (1.3) EX: x (t )  sin(t )

Example 1.1 Antisymmetric about origin

Consider the signal
 t 
sin   ,  T  t  T
x(t )    T 
 0 , otherwise

Is the signal x(t) an even or an odd function of time?
<Sol.>   t 
sin    ,  T  t  T
x(t )    T 
 0
 , otherwise
 t  odd function
  sin   ,  T  t  T
= T 
 0
 , otherwise
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=  x(t ) for all t
 Signal examples
◆ Even-odd decomposition of x(t): Example 1.2
x ( t )  xe ( t )  x o ( t ) Find the even and odd components
of the signal
where xe ( t )  xe (t )
x(t )  e2t cos t
x o (  t )   xo ( t )
<Sol.>
x (  t )  xe (  t )  x o (  t ) x(t )  e2t cos(t )
 xe ( t )  x o ( t ) =e 2t cos(t )
1
 x(t )  x(t )
Even component:
xe  (1.4)
2 1
xe (t )  ( e2t cos t  e2t cos t )
1 2
xo   x ( t )  x (  t )  (1.5)
2  cosh(2t ) cos t

Odd component:
1
xo (t )  ( e2t cos t  e2t cos t )  sinh(2t ) cos t
2 31

Signal examples
◆ Conjugate symmetric: EX: x (t )  cos(t )  j  sin(t )
A complex-valued signal x(t) is said to be conjugate symmetric if
x(t )  x (t ) (1.6) Refer to
Let x(t )  a(t )  jb(t ) Fig. 1-13
Problem 1-2
x* (t )  a (t )  jb(t ) a( t )  a(t )
a(t )  jb(t )  a (t )  jb(t ) b( t )  b(t )
3. Periodic and nonperiodic signals (Continuous-Time Case)
Periodic signals: x(t )  x(t  T ) for all t (1.7)
T  T0 , 2T0 , 3T0 , ...... and T  T0  Fundamental period Figure 1.13
(p. 20)
Fundamental frequency: (a) One example
1 of continuous-
f  (1.8)
T time signal.
Angular frequency: (b) Another
2 example of a
  2 f  (1.9) continuous-time
T
signal. 32
 Signal examples
◆ Example of periodic and nonperiodic signals: Fig. 1-14.

Figure 1.14 (p. 21)

(a) Square wave with amplitude A = 1 and period T = 0.2s.
(b) Rectangular pulse of amplitude A and duration T1.
◆ Periodic and nonperiodic signals (Discrete-Time Case)
x  n   x  n  N  for integer n (1.10)
Fundamental frequency of x[n]: N = positive integer
2
 (1.11)
N 33

Signal examples

Figure 1.15 (p. 21)

Triangular wave alternative between –1 and +1 for Problem 1.3.
◆ Example of periodic and nonperiodic signals:
Fig. 1-16 and Fig. 1-17.

Figure 1.16 (p. 22)

Discrete-time square
wave alternative
between –1 and +1.

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 Signal examples
Figure 1.17 (p. 22)
Aperiodic discrete-time signal
consisting of three nonzero samples.

4. Deterministic signals and random signals

A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.
Figure 1.13 ~ Figure 1.17
A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before it occurs.
Figure 1.9
5. Energy signals and power signals
Instantaneous power:
v 2 (t ) If R = 1  and x(t) represents a current or a voltage,
p(t )  (1.12) then the instantaneous power is
R
p (t )  x 2 (t ) (1.14)
p(t )  Ri 2 (t ) (1.13) 35

Signal examples
The total energy of the continuous-time signal x(t) is ◆ Discrete-time case:
T
 Total energy of x[n]:
E  lim  x 2 (t )dt   x 2 (t )dt
2
T (1.15)
T   
E  x [ n]
2 2
(1.18)
Time-averaged, or average, power is n 

1 T2 2 Average power of x[n]:

P  lim T x (t )dt (1.16)
T  T N
1
P  lim  x [n]
2 2
n  2 N
(1.19)
For periodic signal, the time-averaged power is n  N
T N 1
1 1
P  2T x 2 (t )dt
T 2
(1.17) P
N
 x [n]
n 0
2

(1.20)
★ Energy signal:
If and only if the total energy of the signal satisfies the condition
0 E 
★ Power signal: (Periodic signals)
If and only if the average power of the signal satisfies the condition
0 P 36
 Signal operations
1.5 Basic Operations on Signals
1. Amplitude scaling: 6. Time scaling:
x(t) y (t )  cx(t ) (1.21) y (t )  x(at )
x[n] y[n]  cx[n]
y[n]  x[kn], k  0 k = integer
2. Addition:
y (t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) (1.22) 7. Time shifting:
y[n]  x1[n]  x2 [n] y (t )  x(t  t0 )
3. Multiplication: y[n]  x[n  m] m = integer
y (t )  x1 (t ) x2 (t ) (1.23)
8. Time scaling & shifting:
y[n]  x1[n]x2 [n] y (t )  x(at  b)
4. Differentiation: y[n ]  x[kn  m], k 0
d
y (t )  x(t ) (1.24) k & m = integer
dt
5. Integration:
t
y (t )   x( )d (1.26) 37


Signal operations
1.5 Basic Operations on Signals
★ 1.5.1 Operations Performed on dependent Variables c = scaling factor
Amplitude scaling: x(t) y (t )  cx(t ) (1.21)
Discrete-time case: x[n] y[n]  cx[ n] Performed by amplifier
Addition:
y (t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) (1.22)
Discrete-time case: y[n]  x1[n]  x2 [n]
Multiplication:
Ex. AM modulation
y (t )  x1 (t ) x2 (t ) (1.23)
y[n]  x1[n]x2 [n]
Differentiation: Figure 1.18 (p. 26)
d d Inductor with current
y (t )  x(t ) (1.24) Inductor: v(t )  L i (t ) (1.25) i(t), inducing voltage
dt dt
v(t) across its
Integration: terminals.
t
y (t )   x( )d (1.26) 38

 Signal operations
1 t
C 
Capacitor: v(t )  i ( )d (1.27) Figure 1.19 (p. 27)
Capacitor with
★ 1.5.2 Operations Performed on voltage v(t) across
independent Variables its terminals,
Time scaling: inducing current i(t).
a >1  compressed
y (t )  x(at )
0 < a < 1  expanded
Fig. 1-20.
EX: X(t) cos 2 ft)

Figure 1.20 (p. 27) EX: X(t) cos 2 (2f)t) EX: X(t) cos 2 (f/2)t)
Time-scaling operation; (a) continuous-time signal x(t), (b) version of x(t) compressed
by a factor of 2, and (c) version of x(t) expanded by a factor of 2. 39

Signal operations
Discrete-time case: y[n]  x[kn], k  0 k = integer Some values lost!

Figure 1.21 (p. 28)

Effect of time scaling on a discrete-time signal: (a) discrete-time signal x[n] and (b)
version of x[n] compressed by a factor of 2, with some values of the original x[n] lost
as a result of the compression.
Reflection:
y (t )  x(t ) The signal y(t) represents a reflected version of x(t) about t = 0.
Ex. 1-3
Consider the triangular pulse x(t) shown in Fig. 1-22(a). Find the reflected
version of x(t) about the amplitude axis (i.e., the origin).
<Sol.> Fig.1-22(b). 40
 Signal operations

Figure 1.22 (p. 28)

Operation of reflection: (a) continuous-time signal x(t) and (b) reflected version of x(t)
about the origin.
x(t )  0 for t  T1 and t  T2
t0 > 0  shift toward right
y (t )  0 for t  T1 and t  T2 t0 < 0  shift toward left
Time shifting: y (t )  x(t  t0 )
Ex. 1-4 Time Shifting: Fig. 1-23.
Figure 1.23 (p. 29)
Time-shifting operation: (a) continuous-
time signal in the form of a rectangular
pulse of amplitude 1.0 and duration 1.0,
symmetric about the origin; and (b) time-
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shifted version of x(t) by 2 time shifts.

Signal operations

green wave leads red wave, red wave lags green wave

若把波形寫成數學式，落後相位的波形相位角為負數，領先相位的波形相
位角為正數。
sg(t)=Acos(ωt) …Green waveform
sr(t)=Acos(ωt–90∘) …Red waveform
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 Signal operations

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Signal operations
Discrete-time case: y[n]  x[n  m] where m is a positive or negative integer
★ 1.5.3 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling
1. Combination of time shifting and time scaling:
y (t )  x(at  b) (1.28)
y (0)  x(b) (1.29)
b
y ( )  x(0) (1.30)
a
2. Operation order: To achieve Eq. (1.28),
1st step: time shifting v(t )  x (t  b)
2nd step: time scaling y (t )  v( at )  x(at  b)
Ex. 1-5 Precedence Rule for Continuous-Time Signal
Consider the rectangular pulse x(t) depicted in Fig. 1-24(a). Find y(t)=x(2t + 3).
<Sol.> Case 1: Fig. 1-24.  Shifting first, then scaling
Case 2: Fig. 1-25.  Scaling first, then shifting
y (t )  v(t  3)  x(2(t  3))  x(2t  3) 44
 Signal operations

Figure 1.24 (p. 31)

The proper order in which the operations of time scaling and time shifting
should be applied in the case of the continuous-time signal of Example 1.5.
(a) Rectangular pulse x(t) of amplitude 1.0 and duration 2.0, symmetric
about the origin. (b) Intermediate pulse v(t), representing a time-shifted
version of x(t). (c) Desired signal y(t), resulting from the compression of v(t)
by a factor of 2.

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Signal operations

錯誤的步驟!

Figure 1.25 (p. 31)

The incorrect way of applying the precedence rule. (a) Signal x(t).
(b) Time-scaled signal v(t) = x(2t). (c) Signal y(t) obtained by shifting
v(t) = x(2t) by 3 time units, which yields y(t) = x(2(t + 3)).
Ex. 1-6 Precedence Rule for Discrete-Time Signal
A discrete-time signal is defined by
 1, n  1,2

x[n]   1, n  1, 2
 0, n  0 and | n | 2
 46
Find y[n] = x[2n + 3].
 Signal operations
<Sol.> See Fig. 1-27.

Figure 1.27 (p. 33)

The proper order of applying the operations of time scaling and time shifting for the
case of a discrete-time signal. (a) Discrete-time signal x[n], antisymmetric about the
origin. (b) Intermediate signal v(n) obtained by shifting x[n] to the left by 3 samples.
(c) Discrete-time signal y[n] resulting from the compression of v[n] by a factor of 2,47
as a result of which two samples of the original x[n], located at n = –2, +2, are lost.

HW #0
• 到雲端學院網站。
• 依HW#0指示，完成作業。
• 在2024/02/26(一)14:00前，用pdf格式，完成
上傳，學期總成績加3分。
• 超過時間補交或非pdf格式，總成績加1分，
沒有交加0分。

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