Module 5: Sensors

Introduction to Sensors:
Definition of sensor: “The sensor is device that interacts with a specific chemical
or biological species (analyte), detects it and measure its physical/ chemical
information into measurable electrical signal proportional to its quantity".

• Physical/Chemical phenomena such as Temperature, pressure, motion, light, or

sound / composition, concentration, chemical activity, partial pressure etc.
• The information may originate from a chemical reaction of the analyte or from a physical
property.
• Analyte is the target species which is being detected and measured using a sensor.
The sensor subject is an emerging discipline formed by the multidisciplinary study of
chemistry, biology, electricity, optics, mechanics, acoustics, thermology, semiconductor
technology, microelectronics technology, and membrane technology.

Sensors plays key Role in

• Environmental monitoring
• Industrial process monitoring
• Gas composition analysis
• Medicinal field for disease diagnosis and health monitoring
• National defense and public security
• Agricultural area for soil monitoring and on-site pesticides, herbicides monitoring etc.
Sensors have many excellent properties; hence the sensor becomes one of the most active and
effective directions of modern technology. Following are the important properties of sensor.
• Small size
• Satisfactory sensitivity
• Larger dynamic range
• Low cost
• Quick response
• Accuracy of results
• Easy to realize automatic measurement.
• Online or in -situ and continuous detection.

Figure- 1

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Components of Sensor:
Main basic components of a sensor are:
• Receptor or Chemical (molecular) recognition system
• Physicochemical transducer
• Electronic system
• Display system
Receptor:
"Receptor is a chemical or biological recognition element and is able to interact with the
analyte molecules specifically and selectively".
• The Receptor produces a signal corresponding to interaction. During the interaction
certainphysical or chemical properties of the sensing element change proportionately
to the analyte concentration.
• If the receptor is of chemical origin, the device is known as a chemical sensor.
If the receptor is of biological origin (e.g., DNA, antibodies & enzymes) the device is
referred to as a bio- sensor.
Transducer:
"Transducer is an energy conversion device, that converts a physical quantity
or non-electrical signal created by the receptor–analyte interaction into a
readable or measurable electrical signal like voltage, current or resistance.
• The actual concentration value is non-electric quantity is transformed into an electric
quantity like voltage, current or resistance.
• In most chemical sensors the sensing element and transducer are packaged together, in
direct spatial contact, in the same unit.
Electronic system (Signal conditioner): "Electronic system is a microprocessor analyzes
the signal given by the transducer and helps in signal transmission and signal
conditioning such as amplification, filtering and converts the signal from analog to
digital form".

Display system: Display system is an output device which displays amplified signal in various
forms such as numeric value, graph or image etc.

Actuator: An actuator is a device that receives a signal or input and produces a physical output.

Measurement process for the instrumentation model

▪ Sensor input- The physical value or measurand is observed by the sensor device.
▪ Sensor output – The sensor generates a signal variable electrical output.
▪ Signal conditioning- The signal is transmitted and conditioned if needed
(amplified, converted, filtered, etc.)
▪ Display –The measurement is then displayed by the output device.

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Electrochemical sensors:
Electrochemical sensors are devices that detect and measure the concentration of a target analyte
by converting the effect of electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface into an
electrical signal.
• Analytical information of sample is extracted from measurement of electrical parameter
such as potential, current or conductance.
• In electrochemical sensors the electrode or a set of electrodes is used as a
transducer element. Hence these sensors are often called Electrochemical cells.
Depending on the mode of signal transduction, electrochemical sensors can be classified in to
following types.
• Potentiometric sensor (measure voltage)
• Amperometric sensor (measure current)
• Conductimetric sensor (measure resistance or conductivity)
Construction
• Electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing electrode (or working electrode) and a counter
electrode and is separated by a thin layer of electrolyte and reference electrode.
• The sensing electrode has a chemically modified surface. Hence it selectively facilitate the
reduction or oxidation of the analyte.
• Electrolyte is a part of transport of the electric circuit of an electrochemical sensor. The
role of electrolyte is to transport charge within the sensor and, contact all electrodes
effectively, solubilize the reactants and products for efficient transport and be stable
chemically and physically under sensor's operation.
Working Principle:

▪ Electrochemical sensor consists of a transducer element covered by a recognition element.

▪ The recognition element interacts with target analyte and signal is generated.
▪ Electrochemical transducers transform the chemical changes into electrical signals
▪ The electric signals are related to the concentration of analyte.
▪ Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement. Since we need a closed loop there should be at least two electrodes.

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Applications:
• To detect dissolved oxygen in boiler water and to monitor dissolved oxygen concentration
in metal melts and glasses.
• They are used in security and defense applications like detection of toxic gases and warfare
agents.
• They are used in water analysis and environmental monitoring like measurements of toxic
metal concentration in water, pH of water and detection of oxides of nitrogen, sulfur and
carbon.
• They are used in soil parameter analysis and in agriculture applications to detect pesticides.
• Clinical chemistry, namely, the determination of physiologically relevant electrolytes in
physiological fluids like in- situ monitoring of blood glucose, Ca2+, Fe2+ and uric acid.
• The use of electrochemical techniques for detecting enzymes and hormones to monitor
cancer.

Optical Sensors:
"Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light
rays interacted with analyte into measurable electrical signals for detecting and
measuring physical or chemical properties of a analyte ".
• Optical sensors are based on the transduction of interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with the chemical species.
• Commonly electromagnetic radiation in the UV- visible-IR domains is used for analytical
purposes.
• In optical sensor, the optical signal arises from the interaction of the analyte with an
incident radiation. The interaction could result in absorption, emission, reflection and
scattering of light.

• The type of interaction depends on the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation and on
the structure of the molecules of analyte.
• The intensity of the radiation emitting or transmitting from the analyte carries
information on the concentration of the analyte.
• It is measured by an optoelectronic instrument.
Absorption-based optical sensors- Colorimetric Sensors:
Colorimetric sensors are simple types of optical sensors that uses incident light whose wavelength
falls invisible region (400-800nm) of spectrum and detect and determines concentration of
colored chemical species of analyte solutions. The important part of colorimeter is given below.

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Basic components of Colorimeter:
1. Light source
2. Converging lens
3. Wavelength selector
4. Slit
5. Sample holder
6. Photo detector
7. Read-out device.
Block diagram of a colorimeter

Principle:
When analyte solution interacts with an incident light of suitable wavelength, certain quantity of
light is absorbed by the analyte solution, a chemical or physical change occurs with incident light.
Transducers such as photo detectors convert intensity of light absorbed by analyteinto electrical
signal.
A monochromatic light whose wavelength falls in visible region of spectrum is made to pass
through analyte solution where certain quantity of incident light is absorbed and remaining
amount of light is transmitted. Concentration of colored chemical species in analyte solution is
determined by measuring absorbance or transmittance of light of particular wavelength. This
type of analysis is governed by Beer-Lamberts law A= E Ct'
Applications of optical sensors:
1. Optical sensors are used to continuously monitor chemical species in chemical industry,
biotechnology, medicine, environmental sciences, personal protection, etc.
2. Optical sensors are used to detect and measure different types of chemical, bio-
chemical molecules and ions.
3. Used in routine health monitoring of structures.
4. Used in imaging, Remote Sensing satellite, Metrology, medical devices, and quality
processcontrol-based applications.
5. Used in screening of drugs, detection of food borne pathogens, detection of explosives (Optical
fiber-based bio sensor).
6. Biomedical and healthcare applications
7. Industrial applications:
8.Agricultural application:
9.Environmental application
10.Commercial applications

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Thermometric Sensors:
Thermometric sensors are based on the measurement of thermal changes during the
interaction between analyte and receptor. These thermal changes are converted to
measurable changes in the temperature or potential.

• Thermometric transduction is possible in those processes which generate sufficient heat to

produce a measurable change of temperature.
• Chemical or biological species which undergo catalytic chemical reactions and enzyme-
catalyzed reactions liberating heat (exothermic reaction) can be determined by
thermometric sensors.
• Main component of a thermometric sensor is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a
temperature transducer. Analyte is fed into the reactor where it undergoes reaction,
liberating heat energy. Heat liberated results in change in temperature which is converted
to the output voltage by transducer such as thermocouple, then signal is amplified and fed
to the data storage, processing unit and display.
• In order to convert change in temperature into an electric signal, a thermocouple is used as
transducer.
• A thermocouple is a device that converts the temperature difference directly into an
electrical voltage. It consists of a loop formed by two different metals.
Applications of Thermometric Sensors
• Thermal bio sensors are based on the temperature change induced by a simple enzymatic
reaction. They are used in the determination of metabolites, bioprocess monitoring and
environmental control. For example, the determination of glucose using the glucose
oxidase-catalyzed reaction.
• Thermometric chemical sensors are used for determination of combustible gases that react
with oxygen at the surface of a suitable catalyst.

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