LABORATORY MANUAL

MECHANISMS OF MACHINES LAB (ME225)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology
Bhopal

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Page
SNo. Name of Experiments
No
To find the speed at which jump phenomenon occurs in the Cam Follower
1 03
System

2 Verification of Gyroscopic couple formula 11

To obtain the Static and Dynamic Balancing on the experimental

3 17
apparatus

4 To determine the whiling speed of shaft 20

To study epicylic gear trains and find relation between output torque and
5 27
holding torque.

To study the effect of coriolli’s component of acceleration and find relation

6 40
between actual and theoretical coriolli’s component of acceleration.

To study the governors and to obtain controlling force curve of Watt,

7 57
Porter, Proell and Spring controlled governors

8 Study of Four bar mechanism with different Inversions. 82

9 Study of different Clutches 89

10 Study of Brakes and Dynamometers 94

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 Experiment 1
Aim:

To find the speed at which jump phenomenon occurs in the “Cam Follower System”.

Description:

The cam can be seen as a device that rotates from circular to reciprocating (or sometimes
oscillating) motion. A common example is the camshaft of an automobile, which takes the rotary
motion of the engine and translates it into the reciprocating motion necessary to operate the intake
and exhaust valves of the cylinders. A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage
used especially in transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice-versa. It is oftena part of a
rotating wheel (e.g. an eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder with an irregular shape) that strikes
a lever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to
deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or other shape that
produces a smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the follower, which is a lever making
contact with the cam.

Cam Analysis Apparatus:

Apparatus is a motorized unit consisting of a camshaft driven by a variable speedmotor. The shaft
runs in a double bearing. The free end of the camshaft has a facility to mount the cam easily.

The follower is properly guided in gunmetal bushes and the type of follower can be changed
according to the cam under test. Graduated circular protractor is fitted co-axial with the shaft. And
a Dial Gauge fitted on the follower shaft is used to note the follower displacement for the angle of
cam rotation. A spring is used to provide controlling force to the follower system. Weights on the
follower shaft canbe adjusted as per the requirement. An arrangement is provided to regulate the
speed. The apparatus is very useful for testing the cam performance for jump phenomenon during
operation. On this apparatus the effect of change of inertia forces on jump action of cam-follower
during operation can be observed. It is

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 useful for testing various cam & follower pairs. Three cams and three followers will be supplied
with the apparatus. These are already hardened to reduce the wear.

Figure.1: Cam analysis apparatus.

Theory:

Classification of cams on the basis of:

1. Shape

2. Follower movement

3. Manner of constraint of follower.

According to shape: -

Wedge and flat cams: - A wedge cam has a wedge in general which has translational motion.
The follower can either translate or oscillate. A spring is used

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to maintain contact between the cam and follower. Instead of wedge a flat platewith a groove is
also used.

Radial or Disc cam: - A cam in which the follower moves radially from the centerof rotation of the
cam is known as radial or disc cam. It is used due to simplicity and compactness.

Spiral cam: - A spiral cam is a face cam in which a groove is cut in form of spiral. The spiral
grooves consist of teeth, which mesh with a pin gear follower. The velocity of the follower is
proportional to the radial distance of groove from axis ofcam.

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Cylindrical cam: - In this cam a cylinder, which has a circumferential contour, cutin the surface
rotate about it’s axis. These cams are also known as barrel or drum cams.

Conjugate cam: - Conjugate cams is a double disc cam, two discs being keyedtogether and are
in constant touch with two rollers of the follower.

Globoidal cam: - A Globoidal cam can have two types of surfaces, convex or concave. A
circumferential contour is cut on the surface of the rotation of cam toimpart motion to the follower
that has an oscillatory motion.

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Spherical cam:- In this the follower oscillates about an axis perpendicular to theaxis of rotation of
the cam.

On the basis of follower movement:

Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Return-Dwell (D-R-D-R-D): After a certain dwell period thefollower rises (or

returns) to another dwell period. This is the most frequent cam motion. D-R-D portion of the cam
cycle will be followed by a Dwell- Return- Dwell motion which is analyzed in a similar manner with
D-R-R-D

Dwell-Rise-Return (D-R-R): After a certain dwell period the follower rises and returns to the
original motion

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Rise-Return (R-R): There is no dwell period. For high speed applications one canin most cases
instead of using cams one can use a slider-crank or any other mechanism with lower kinematic
pairs

Types of cam follower:

On the basis of shape:

(A) The knife edge follower:

This is the simplest type, is not often used due to the rapid rate of wear. When it isadopted, it is
usually for reciprocating motion, running in slides and there is considerable side thrust, this being
a component of the thrust from the cam.

(B) The roller follower:

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This eliminates the problem of rapid wear since the sliding effect is largely replaced by a roller
action. Some sliding will still take place due to the varying peripheral speed of the cam profile,
due to the changing radius of the point of contact. Note also that the radial position of the
contact between the cam and the roller, relative to the follower center, will change according to
whether a rise or fallmotion is taken place: this fact has to be considered when constructing the
cam profile. Again, with the roller follower, considerable side thrusts are present, a
disadvantage when dealing with reciprocating motions. This side thrust will be increased when
using small rollers.

(C) Flat or Mushroom Follower. These have the advantage that the only side thrust is that
due to friction between the contact surfaces of cam and follower. Therelative motion is one of
sliding but it may be possible to reduce this by offsettingthe axis of the follower as shown in the
diagram. This results in the follower revolving under the influence of the cam.

(D) Flat faced Follower. These are really an example of the mushroom follower and are used
where space is limited. The most obvious example being automobileengines.

Specifications:
1. CAMS: eccentric, tangent and circular are cam one each.
2. Followers: Flat faced, mushroom and roller followers one each.
3. Push rod assembly with spring and dead weight.
4. Variable speed motors to drive the cams.
5. Angular scale and dial gauge one each.

Experiment Procedure:
1. Fit the required cam over the camshaft and required follower to the push rod.
2. Set angel scale at required position.
3. Adjust the weight seat and dial gauge.
4. Rotate the cam by hand and note down the dial gauge reading at every 30 degreeinterval.
5. Remove the dial gauge switch on the power supply slowly increase the motorspeed.
6. At particular speed a striking sound is heard. This speed is called jump speed because at
the speed follower does not follow the exact path guided by the can contour. Note down the
speed use of this cam follower system is on this speed isuseless because desired follower
motion is not obtained.
7. Repeat the procedure for different dead weight and spring tension configurationat different
cam follower considerations.

Observation Table:

S.No Cam Angle Follower displacement(mm)

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Jump speed: rpm Dead weight: N Spring tension:

Precautions:

1. Fix the key and bold for cam tightening properly.

2. While starting the motor insure that the dial gauge has been removed. Tighten the weight
loaded by the check nut.

Questions:
1. What is a cam follower system, and what are its primary components? Explain the role of
each component.
2. Differentiate between various types of cam profiles (e.g., radial, cylindrical) and follower
types (e.g., knife-edge, roller). How do these designs impact system performance?
3. What is the jump phenomenon in a cam follower system, and why is it critical to identify
its occurrence?
4. What measurements and observations are necessary to determine the speed of the jump
phenomenon in the experiment? Outline the process step-by-step.
5. How does the cam's rotational speed affect the dynamic behavior of the follower, and
how can this relationship be analyzed in the experiment?
6. What are the potential consequences of the jump phenomenon in real-world applications,
and how can the findings from this experiment be applied in mechanical design?

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 EXPERIMENT 2

AIM: To verify the formula for Gyroscopic couple.

GYROSCOPE EFFECT:

A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of

angular momentum. Mechanically, a gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axle
is free to assume any orientation. Although this orientation does not remain fixed, it changes
in response to an external torque much less and in a different direction than it would with the
large angular momentum associated with the disc's high rate of spin and moment of inertia.
The device's orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of the mounting platform's motion,
because mounting the device in a gimbals minimizes external torque.

Fig.1. Gyroscope Apparatus

Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems where magnetic compasses

would not work (as in the Hubble telescope) or would not be precise enough (as in ICBMs), or
for the stabilization of flying vehicles like radio-controlled helicopters or unmanned aerial
vehicles. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are also used in gyrotheodolites to maintain
direction in tunnel mining.

GYROSCOPIC COUPLE OF PLANE DISC:

Let:
The line OP in the diagram rotates around O
Its inclination relative to OX is 

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 Figure.2.
Then if after a short period of time the line has moved to lie along , then the angle is the
Angular Displacement of the line.

Angular Displacement

In order to completely specify angular displacement by a vector, the vector mustfix:-

The direction of the axis of rotation in space.

The sense of the angular displacement, i.e., whether clockwise or anti-clockwise.
The magnitude of the angular displacement.

In order to fix the vector, it can be drawn at right angles to the plane in which the angular
displacement takes place; say along the axis of rotation, and its length will be (to a convenient
scale) the magnitude of the displacement.

The conventional way of representing the sense of the vector is to use the right- hand screw
rule, i.e.

The arrow head points along the vector in the same direction as a right handed screw would
move relative to a fixed nut.

Using the above convention, the angular displacement shown in the diagram would be
represented by a vector perpendicular to the plane of the screen and the arrow head would point
away from the screen.

Angular Velocity
Angular Velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time. As
angular velocity has both magnitude and direction, it is a vector quantity, and may be represented in
the same way as angular displacement

If the direction of the angular displacement vector is constant, i.e., the plane of the angular
displacement does not change its direction, then the angular velocity is merely the change in
magnitude of the angular displacement with respect to time.

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 Angular Acceleration
Angular Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity with respect

to time. It is a Vector quantity. The direction of the acceleration vector is not necessarilythe same as
the displacement and velocity vectors.

Assume that at a given instant a disc is spinning with an angular velocity of  in a plane at right
angles to the screen, yo yo and that after a short interval of t its speed has increased to
.

Figure.3.

Then applying the right-hand rule:

The angular velocities at the two instants are represented by the vectors oa and ob and the
change of angular velocity in a time of t is represented by the Vector ab. This can be resolved
into two components ac and cb which are respectively parallel and perpendicular to oa.

Hence
The component parallel to oa is given by T = d/dt
The component perpendicular to oa is given by
C = d/dt= p

Where:

p is the rate of change of direction of the vector oa .

T is the rate of change of the magnitude of velocity  of the disc.
C is the rate at which the  direction of and therefore the plane of the rotation of the disc, is
changing.
The total angular acceleration of the disc is the vector sum of T and C.

Two particular cases should be noted:

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 If the plane of rotation of the disc is constant in direction, then p is zero and the component of
acceleration C is zero.

If the angular acceleration of the disc is constant in magnitude but the plane of rotation changes
direction at the rate p radians per second, then the angular acceleration of the disc is given
by:

C = d/dt= p

▪ The direction ofthis acceleration vector is at right angles to the angular velocity vector and lies
in the plane of motion of the velocity vector.

Gyroscopic Couple

If a uniform disc of polar moment of inertia  is rotated about its axis with an angular velocity 
, its Angular Momentum is  a vector and can be represented in diagram (c) by the
line up which is drawn in the direction of the axis of rotation. The sense of the rotation is
clockwise when looking in the direction of the arrow.

Figure 4.

If now the axis of rotation is processing with a uniform angular velocity p about an axis
perpendicular to that of , then after a time dt the axis of rotation will have turned through an
angle d=p dt and the momentum vector will be oq

The gyroscopic couple= rate of change angular momentum

T= d/dt =p

▪ The direction of the couple acting on the gyroscope is that of a clockwise rotation when looking
in the direction.

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Observations:

S.NO Angle Weight Time(s) RPM rad/s) p(rad/s) Ip Tj

Mass of rotor: kg

Diameter of disc: cm

Radius of disc: cm

Length of load from disc: cm

Mass moment of inertia of disc:
Mean p =
Mean Tj= Error: %

Rule number 1:

1. The spinning body exert a torque couple in such a direction which tends to make the
excess of spin conside with that of the precession.

2. To study the rule of gyroscope in behaviour following procedure may be adopted.

3. Balance the initial horizontal position of the rotor.

4. Start the rotor by increasing the voltage with the day dimmer and weight it attains constant
speed.

5. Process the yoke free number to about vertical axis by applying necessary for us by hand
do the same.

6. It will be observed that the router frames wings about the horizontal axis motor side is
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 seen coming up word and the weight and size going downward.

7. Rotate the vertical you axis in anticlockwise direction scene from above and observed
that the motor frame sing in the opposite sense.

Rule number 2:
1. The spinning body processes in the such a way as to make the excess austin consite with
that of a couple of light through 90 degree turn axis

2. Balancer position on the horizontal frame.

3. Start the motor by increasing the voltage with the auto transformer and wait till the disc
attains constant speed.

4. Put weight in the weight box and start the stopwatch to note the time.

5. The vertical yoke processes about axis as per rule number 2.

6. Speed may be measured by the taco meter provided by control panel enter the observation
in the table

CONCLUSION:
It is found that the equation T= =p is verified.

Questions:

1. What is a gyroscopic couple, and how is it generated in a rotating body?

2. State the formula for the gyroscopic couple and explain the significance of each term in
the formula.
3. Describe the experimental setup used to verify the formula for the gyroscopic couple.
How does it help demonstrate the concept?
4. What are the key observations required during the experiment to calculate and verify the
gyroscopic couple?
5. Explain the practical applications of gyroscopic principles in engineering systems.
Provide examples where the gyroscopic couple plays a crucial role.
6. How would the gyroscopic couple change if the direction of spin or the plane of
precession is reversed? Discuss the underlying principles and provide examples from
real-world applications where such scenarios are encountered.

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 Experiment 3

Aim: To obtain the Static and Dynamic Balancing on the experimental apparatus.

INTRODUCTION –

It is basic equipment used for analyzing the concept of statically and dynamically balancing of
rotating masses.

BASIC SETUP –

The equipment consists of rigid frame of ‘T’ shape. We may call this as supporting frame.
Three nuts are provided on it to hold the equipment on horizontal level by tightening screws.
A main frame consist of four steel flat is also provided with the equipment. This is basic and
important part with to our experiment. This frame consists of horizontal shaft mounted
between two bearings. A pulley allows with a hock and a pointer is provided on this pulley.
A graduated scale of 3600 is provided on this side of mainframe. Six rotating weights with
marking of numbers letters having different holes are provided.

PROCEDURE –

Clamp the main frame on the supporting frame by a nut and bolt. Clamp rotating weight having
mark as 1/a on the main shaft by alen key provided with the machine. Ensure that weight is
firmly clamped. It should move along with the shaft only. While doing this, care should be
taken to have the pointer at 00. Now attach two weight pans by a light flexible string to the
hook provided on the pulley. Let this string pass through the groom provided on pulley. Now
add steel balls in any one of the weight pans ensure that both the weight pans are in
horizontal level. Go adding weights until the rotating weight falls freely. At this time pointer
show 900 + 100. Count down the steel balls.

Continue this procedure for all other five weights. Record these weights in a table.

Wt. No. No. of steel balls(N)

TO DETERMINE STATIC BALANCING –

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Select any four rotating weights at random. Select any random distance between them. Find
the couple of all the forces (weights) with respect to any one of the forces. The general idea
of this couple binding will be as under,

4 2 3 5

-------- a ---------b ------------ c --------

Tabulate the results as per following –

Weight No. N Dist. W. R. T. Weight (d) Couple = N x d

4 0 0

2 a

3 (a + b)

5 (a + b + c)

Now draw couple polygon. Here we will get the angle of weight No. 2 & 3.

Force polygon is also drawn by taking a suitable scale for WR values with angle of force 4 as
0. Angles of forces 2 & 3 as found in couple polygon. Here you will find out the angle of force
6.

Now tabulate the angles of each force.

Force Angle

40

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 Attach these weights as per these angles. On the shaft with the use of weight setting gauges
and scale provided on the main frame. For tightening the shaft at required angle use of knob
may be done. Ensure that the weight attached is at right angle to the weight setting gauge
and it is exactly at the distance taken for calculating couple.

Remove weight setting gauge and knob. Rotate the pulley by hand. It should stop at any
position.

DYNAMIC BALANCING –

Remove the main frame from supporting frame. Attach hook and chain to the main frame at
the given tapings. Lift the main frame and attach it to the supporting frame by chain and stud.
Tighten the nut. Now the main frame is hanging. Adjusts its level by using chain and nut
arrangement.

Put a belt on the motor pulley and pulley provided on shaft. Use small diameter of the pulley
to put belt on it. Now start the motor and observe the performer.

We can say the rotating masses are perfectly dynamically balanced when there exists zero
vibration to the frame.

LIMITATIONS –

Care is taken to minimize friction between the shaft and mainframe but however zero friction
is not possible at all.

By selecting any four weight rather that the above we can find the same Static and
Dynamically balancing of rotary weights.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the difference between static and dynamic balancing? Why are both types of
balancing important in mechanical systems?
2. Describe the steps involved in achieving static balancing using the experimental
apparatus. What are the key observations required?
3. Explain how dynamic balancing differs in procedure and complexity from static
balancing. What additional parameters need to be considered?
4. How does imbalance in a rotating system affect its performance and safety? Provide
examples of real-world applications where balancing is critical.
5. What factors can introduce imbalance in mechanical systems, and how can the results
of this experiment help mitigate these issues in practical scenarios?
6. Imagine you are designing a high-speed rotating machine for a space application. How
would you apply the principles of static and dynamic balancing to ensure optimal
performance and prevent system failure? What unique challenges would you face in
this scenario?

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 Experiment 4

AIM: To determine the whiling speed of shaft.

OBJECTIVE: To observe the modes of vibration to determine the critical speed of the given
shaft with the given end conditions.

THEORY:

When any elastic body such as spring beam & shaft are displaced by the application of
external forces & then released. They execute a vibratory motion. When the particles of the
shaft or any disc move approximately perpendicular to the axis of shaft. Then the vibrations
are known as transverse vibration. In this case, the shaft is straight & bends alternately &
bending stresses are induced in the shaft. When a shaft is fixed at both ends, normally the
centre of gravity will displace from the axis of rotation at a very lower amount. As a result of
this displacement, the centre of gravity is subjected to a centripetal acceleration as soon as
the shaft begins to rotate.

The inertia force acts radially outwards & bends the shaft. The bending of shaft is not only
depending upon the value of eccentricity. But also depends upon the speed at which the shaft
rotates. Consider a shaft AB of length L, carrying a load at any point of shaft. When some
amount deflection will be given to it then released, it will make transverse vibration. The
deflection of the shaft is proportional to load W & if the beam is deflected beyond the static
equilibrium position, then the load will vibrate with some harmonic motion. If a is the static
deflection due to load W, then the natural frequency of free transverse vibration is.

f_n=1/2π √(g/σ)=0.4985/(√σ)

Then for simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load of W per unit length, a can
be find out by using formula

σ=5/385×(wl^4)/EI

Where, W weight/ unit length (Nm) Then for fixed beam with a uniformly distributed load of W
per unit length can be find out by using following formula

σ=(wl^4)/384EI

In actual practice, a rotating shaft carries different mountings & accessories in the form of
gears. pulleys etc. when the gears or pulleys are put on the shaft, the center of gravity of the
pulley or gear does not coincide with the center line of the bearing or with the axis of the shaft,
when the shaft is stationary. This means that the center of gravity of the pulley or gear is at a
certain distance from the axis of rotation and due to this, the shaft is subjected to centrifugal
force. This force will bend the shaft. which will further increase the distance of center of gravity
of the pulley or gear from the axis of rotation. This correspondingly increases the value of
centrifugal force, which further increase the of center of gravity from the axis of rotation. The
bending of shaft is not only depending upon the value of eccentricity but also depends upon
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the speed at which the shaft rotates. The speed at which the shaft runs. So that the additional
deflection of the shaft from the axis of rotation becomes infinite, is known as critical or whirling
speed. If N, is the critical or whirling speed in R.P.S.

Then

2πN_c=√(g/σ)

N_c=1/2π √(g/σ) RPS

The critical or whirling speed is same as the natural frequency of transverse vibration, but its
unit will be revolutions per second. Dunker ley's method is used to determine the critical speed
of a shaft, which may be subjected to uniformly distributed load, A shaft supported with short
bearings is assumed to be a simply supported shaft, while shaft supported with long bearings
(or journal bearings) assumed to have both ends fixed.

When a shaft rotates, it will go in to transverse vibration. If the shaft is out of balance, the
resulting centrifugal force will induce the shaft to vibrate. When the shaft rotates at a speed
equal to the natural frequency of transverse oscillations. This vibration becomes large and
shows up as a whirling of the shaft. It also occurs at multiples of the resonant speed. This can
be very damaging to heavy rotary machines such as turbine generator sets and the system
must be carefully balanced to reduce this effect and designed to have a natural frequency
different to the speed of rotation. When starting or stopping such machinery, the critical
speeds must be avoided to prevent damage to the bearings and must be avoided to prevent
damage to the bearings and turbine blades.

Suppose a shaft rotates, centrifugal force will cause it to bend out. Let the deflection of the
shaft be r The distance to the centre of gravity is then r+e. The shaft rotates at co rad/s. The
transverse stiffness is k, N/m

The deflection force is hence F = K₁r The centrifugal force is M w² (r+e)

Equating force we have

k_t=Mω^2 (r+e)

Rom which

r=(Mω^2 (r+e))/k_1 =(Mω^2 r)/k_1 +(Mω^2 e)/k_1

r=(Mω^2 (r+e))/(k_1 (1-(Mω^2)/k_t ))

It has already seen that

k_t/M=ω_n^2 r=(ω^2 e)/(ω_n^2 (1-ω^2/(ω_n^2 )))= e/(ω_n/ω-1)

From this we see that when ∞ = 0 re/o which is infinity. This means that no matter how small
the imbalance distance e is, the shaft will whirl at the natural frequency. Balancing does help
but can never be perfect so whirling is to be avoided on the best of machines. The frequencies

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at which whirling occurs are calculated by the same methods as for transverse vibrations of
beams

SIMPLY SUPPORTED - The ends are free to rotate normal to the axis (e.g. self aligning
bearings)

FIXED ENDS (i.e. Fixed bearing or chucks)

The lowest critical speed is

f_n=3.562√(gEI/(WL^4 ))

The highest Critical Speed is

f_n=π/2 [n+1/2]^2 √(gEI/(WL^4 ))

Where n=1,2,3,4…………..

When Chuck at one end & free at the other

The lowest critical speed is

f_n=0.565√(gEI/(WL^4 ))

The highest Critical Speed is

f_n=π/2 [n-1/2]^2 √(gEI/(WL^4 ))

Where n=1, 2, 3, 4.....( Lowest speed corresponds to n=1)

DESCRIPTION:

The setup consists of a sturdy m.s frame, variable speed motor bearing holders etc. Different
bearings can be fitted in bearing block to have different end conditions. I.e.

(1) Both end fixed

(ii) Both end free (simply supported),

(iii) One end free & other end fixed

A variable speed motor is provided to drive the shaft along with the speed control unit. The
setup is will designed to study the whirling of shaft.

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UTILITIES REQUIRED:

Floor Area – 2 * 0.5 m^2

Electrical supply 230 V AC

Tachometer.

PROCEDURE:

1.Fix the bearings & shaft to be tested

2. Switch on the power supply

3. Start the motor & increase the speed of motor, with the help of varriac Observe the modes
of vibration

4. observe the modes of vibration.

5.Take the rpm of shaft with the help of tachometer.

6. Switch of the power supply & fix the other shafts accordingly and takes the readings,

OBSERVATION:

Data:

Elasticity of shaft = 189 x 109 N/m²

g=9.81 m/sec²

Mass of the shaft ----Kg

When both ends are fixed

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. Shaft diameter Mode of vibration Speed (RPM)

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When both ends are simply supported

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. Shaft diameter Mode of vibration Speed (RPM)

When one end is fixed and other end is supported

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. Shaft diameter Mode of vibration Speed (RPM)

Calculations:

When both ends are fixed

W = weight / unit length

W =mg/L

Moment of inertia

I =π/64 d^4

Natural Frequency

f_n=3.562√(gEI/(WL^4 ))

The highest critical speed is

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f_n=π/2 [n+1/2]^2 √(gEI/(WL^4 ))

Critical speed

Nc = fn * 60 RPM

When both ends are supported

W = weight / unit length

W =mg/L

Moment of inertia

I =π/64 d^4

Natural Frequency

f_n=π/2 n^2 √(gEI/(WL^4 ))

Critical speed

Nc = fn * 60 RPM

When one end fixed & another end supported

W = weight / unit length

W =mg/L

Moment of inertia

I =π/64 d^4

Critical Frequency

f_n=π/2 [n-1/2] √(gEI/(WL^4 ))

Where n=1,2,3,4….

Critical speed

Nc = fn * 60 RPM
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 Precautions & Maintenance Instructions:

• Never run the apparatus If the power supply is less than 180 volts above 230 volts.
• Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the on/o switches given
on the panel are at o position
• Keep all the assembly undisturbed
• Always apply the weight slowly.

Questions:

1. What is the whirling speed of a shaft, and how does it affect the behavior of a rotating shaft
in mechanical systems?
2. Explain the factors that influence the whirling speed of a shaft. How does the shaft's
material, length, and diameter affect this phenomenon?
3. Describe the experimental setup used to determine the whirling speed of a shaft. What
measurements and observations are necessary during the experiment?
4. How can the whirling speed of a shaft be calculated theoretically? What formula is used,
and what parameters are involved?
5. What are the consequences of exceeding the whirling speed of a shaft, and how can this
phenomenon be mitigated in practical mechanical designs?
6. Imagine you are tasked with designing a rotating shaft for a high-speed machine. How
would you account for the whirling speed in your design process to prevent potential
failures? What modifications could you make to improve stability and performance?

26 | P a g e
 Experiment 5

Aim: To study epicylic gear trains and find relation between output torque and holding torque.

Figure.1: Epicyclic Gear Train Apparatus

ABBREVIATIONS :

Sr No. Symbol Description Unit

1. T1 Tension in tight side Kg

2. T2 Tension in slack side Kg
3. T3 Holding spring Balance Kg
4. P Motor Power Watt
5. N1 Input Speed Rpm
6. N2 Output Speed Rpm
7. Tm Motor Input Torque Kg – m
8. TH Holding Torque Kg – m
9. TO/P Output torque Kg – m

OBJECTIVE:-

The apparatus has been designed to enable students to measure thevarious parameters
related to the Epicyclic gear – trains.
The purpose of test machine is to study the following.
27 | P a g e
Study of Epicyclic gear – trains.
To find relation between output torque and the motor and holding toque.

INTRODUCTION :-

Any combination of gear wheels by means of which motion is transmitted from one shaft to
another shaft is called a gear train. In case of Epicyclic gear - trainsthe axes of the shafts on
which the gears are mounted may move relative to a fixed axis.
Internal Type (Experimentation model) input and output shaft are coaxial.

Figure.2

DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE:

It consists of a SUN gear mounted on input shaft (IS) of the motor.

Two planet gears on both side meshed with SUN gear and which also meshes with the internal
teeth of the annular gear. Two planet gears aremounted on the pins, which are fitted into both
ends of the arm.
The output shaft is connected to the arm on which a drum is fixed.
The input speed (near the motor) and the output speed (after the gear train) ismeasured using
RPM sensor.
The drum is connected to the output shaft and a rope is hanged on it to applyload.
The load is applied using spring balance and the weight gauge.
The holding torque load can be measured on the spring balance connected to the gear
assembly.
The loads on the holding torque side and the drum side can be increasedusing pulley
mounted to the required position.

28 | P a g e
SPECIFICATIONS:

SR
NAME PHOTOGRAPHS
SPECIFICATIONS QTY.
NO.

Make : KAVITSU
AUTOMATION
1 Gear box Type : planetary gearbox. 01
Model : l/80/KA-02/4.85
Sr.o. ; 21203581
Ratio : 4.85:1

Make : BAUMER
2 Model no. : 02
Proxy sensor IGYX12P17B3/S14L
Use :sensing rpm ofmotor
and gear box.

Make : TACHOMETRIC
CONTROLS
Sr. No. :8528.12.20.210
3 MOTOR Power : 1.0 HP Speed : 01
1500 RPM
I/P Supply : 180 VAC
Current rating : 5.2 A Use :
rotational motion

Make : skf
Model no. : UCP 209ID : 45 01
mm
Location : near gear box.
4 BEARING Make : skf
Model no. : UCP 203ID : 17
mm 02
Location : before brake
drum.

29 | P a g e
 PULLEY/BRAKE
5 DRUM Diameter : 240 mm 01

Make : SALTER
WEIGHT Type : dial typeRange :
6 BALANCE 0-10 kgModel : 235 6m 01
(tight side) Min : 50 gm
Use : tight side wt.
measurement.

Make : SALTER
SPRING Range : 0-10 kg Model :
7 BALANCE super samsunMin : 50 01
(slag side) gm
Use : slag side wt.
measurement.

Make : SALTER
SPRING Range : 0-10 kg Model :
8 BALANCE super samsunMin : 50 01
(holding force) gm
Use : holding force
measurement.

9 ROPE Diameter : 20 mm 01
Length : 500 mm

30 | P a g e
 Make : EEE
CONTROL I/P Voltage : 240 VAC
10 PANEL I/P current : 5A 01
Button: Start, speed
control.
Fuse : 5 A
RS232 connectivity :
yes

Make : MECO Display :

11 VOLTAGE led type Color : red 01
INDICATOR Use: motor voltage

Make : MECO Display :

12 CURRENT led type Color : red 01
INDICATOR Use: motor current

INITIAL START UP PROCEDURE:

1. Ensure that the rope is well connected to both the weighting guage properly.
2. With no load on the brake drum adjust the dial reading to zero using theknob
provided accordingly.
3. Also adjust zero of spring balance connected to slag side and holding force when
no load is applied on the brake drum and gear box respectively.
4. Adjust the holding force spring balance using pulley in such a way that the center
line marked on the holding plate connected to gear box coincides with the pointer.
5. Now push the start button on the control panel to ON position.(ensure thatthe
speed control knob is at zero before starting control panel)
6. Ensure that the RPM sensors are well tightened and glowing light only when sensing
to the bolt (the sensor should not faul with the bolt)
7. Now the machine ready for taking experiment.

31 | P a g e
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

STEP PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS

NO. DESCRIPTION
01. Ensure that machine is ready according to the intial startup procedure.

Switch ON the mains supply

02.
to the control panel.

Now push the start button on

03. the control panel to ON
position.

Adjust the N1 RPM of Input

Shaft to some fixed value
using the speed control knob
04. On the display screen
S1-Input speed S2-Output
speed

32 | P a g e
 Apply Load at tight side using
pulley connected to the
weight gauge and note down
05. reading as T1 .

Now note down the spring

balance reading seen at the
06. slag side of the rope as T2 .

Apply holding torque just to

07. hold the drum.
This must be done carefully.

33 | P a g e
 Adjust the holding torque at
08. center.

Before adjustment after adjustment

Apply the load T1 slowly in

increasing order as like 1Kg,
09. 2Kg,…..6Kg.

10. Note down the T1, T2, T3, P, N1 & N2 IN observation table.

PRECAUTIONS:

o Before switching the start button, ensure that motor speed control knobis at zero position
o Keep the mains ‘OFF’ when the trial is complete.
o Increase the speed gradually.
o While closing the test bring the dimmer to zero position and thenswitch 'OFF' the motor.

OBSERVATIONS:-

1) Motor efficiency = 0.8

2) Radius of Gear box
= 0.12 mtr.

34 | P a g e
 3) radius of Brake 0.13 mtr. (Brake drum radius (120 mm)+ rope radius (10
Drum Pulley = mm)

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Sr. Wt. balance Spring Holdin Input Output Motor motor Motor
No. reading balanc g speed speed voltage Current Power
e Torque
readin Balanc
g e

T1 T2 T3 N1 ( N ( RPM) (V) (A) P= V x I

2
RPM) (watts)
1
2
3

Motor TORQUE (kgm)

Input Output Power
speed speed INPUT OUTPUT HOLDING TORQUE
Sr. No. P= V x I TORQUE TORQUE
(watts)
N1 N2 Th Th
Tin Tout
( RPM) ( RPM) experiment theoretical
al
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS:-

A) Motor Power in Watts =( motor voltage x motor current ) watts

B) Input Torque Tin =(motor power in watts)/(2X3.14XN) kg.mtr

C) Output Torque Tout =(T1 - T2) X (Pully radius) kg.mtr

D) Experimental Holding Torque Th

Holding Torque Balance(T3) X Radius of Gear Box= kg.mtr

E) Theoretical
holding torque Th = output Torque - Input Torque

35 | P a g e
CONCLUSION:-

Comparison of theoretical and experimental results for torque shows error. It means that
efficiency of experimental set up that we have used is not 100 %. There are some frictional
losses and mechanical losses occur. Variousparameters affect the torque results like motor
efficiency, frictional losses occurring between belt and rope drum, spring stiffness used for
measurement.

MACHINE TROUBLE SHOOTING:

START-UP
SR.NO. FAULT INVESTIGATION
SEQUENCE

Switching of AC
1. Check AC ON/OFF switch.
1. Switch to AC ON/OFF is not
2. Check MCB is switched on.
ON/OFF performed.

1.Check AC ON/OFF switch.

2. Check that the start button is
pressed.
4. check condition and wiring of the
2. MOTOR ON/OFF MOTOR not ON ON/OFF switch.
switch is ON 5. check velocity control knob is not
at zero.

1. check if proxy sensor is well

Input and output
3. Motor is on connected and light is flashing on and
speed not varing
off when the motor is rotating.

36 | P a g e
EQUIPMENT TOM-06 EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN & 23-01-
DATE :
NAME : HOLDING TORQUE APPARATUS 2021

RESULT SHEET

OBSERVATION :-
1)
Motor
efficie
ncy = 0.8
2) Radius of
Gear box = 0.12 mtr.
(Brake drum
3) radius of radius (120 mm)+
Brake Drum rope radius (10
Pulley = 0.13 mtr. mm)

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Wt.
Spring Holding Input
Sr. balanc Output Motor Motor Motor
balance Torque spee
No. e speed voltage Current Power
reading Balance d
reading
P= V x
N1 ( N2 ( I
T1 T2 T3 (V) (A)
RPM) RPM) (watts
)
167.80
1 2 0.75 0.75 1180 235 131.1 1.28 8
2 4 2 1.5 1062 220 124 1.48 183.52
197.23
3 6 3 2.25 1003 205 117.4 1.68 2

CALCULATION :-

A) Motor
Power in
Watts :( motor voltage x motor current )
167.8
(131.1 X 1.28) =
= 08 watts

B) Input (motor power in

Torque Tin = watts)/(2X3.14XN) kg.mtr
37 | P a g e
 (167.808 ) / ( 2 x 3.14 x 1180 )
0.023
= kg.mtr

C) Output Torque To/P = (T1 - T2) X (Pully radius)= kg.mtr

= (2-0.75) X (0.13) = 0.163 kg.mtr

D) Experimental Holding Holding Torque Balance X Radius of Gear

Torque TH = Box= kg.mtr
0.75 X 0.12 = 0.09 kg.mtr

E)Theoretical holding
torque Th = output Torque - Input Torque
= 0.163 - 0.023 = 0.140 kg.mtr

Motor
TORQUE (kgm)
Power
Input Output INPU OUTP
speed speed T UT HOLDING
Sr.
TOR TORQ TORQUE
No. P= V x I
QUE UE
(watts)
Th Th
N1 ( N2 (
Tin Tout experi theoret
RPM) RPM)
mental ical
1 1180 235 167.808 0.023 0.163 0.09 0.140
2 1062 220 183.52 0.028 0.260 0.18 0.232
3 1003 205 197.232 0.031 0.390 0.29 0.36

Conclusion :

Comparison of analytical and experimental results for torque

shows error. It means that efficiency of
experimental set up that we have used is not 100 %.There
are some frictional losses and mechanical losses occurs.
Various parameters affect the torque results like
motor
efficiency, frictional losses occurring between belt and rope
drum, spring stiffness used for measurement.

38 | P a g e
Questions:

1. What is an epicyclic gear train, and how does it differ from a simple gear system? Explain
its components and working principle.
2. Describe the relationship between the output torque and the holding torque in an
epicyclic gear train. How is this relationship used in mechanical systems?
3. Explain the role of the sun gear, planet gears, and ring gear in an epicyclic gear train.
How do these components work together to achieve different gear ratios?
4. What measurements and observations are required to study the relation between output
torque and holding torque in the experiment? Outline the experimental procedure.
5. How does the number of planets and the arrangement of gears affect the output torque
and holding torque in an epicyclic gear train?
6. Imagine you are designing a transmission system for a vehicle using an epicyclic gear
train. How would you optimize the design to achieve both high output torque and efficient
fuel consumption? What trade-offs would you consider in your design?

39 | P a g e
 Experiment 6
Aim: To study the effect of coriolli’s component of acceleration and find relation between actual
and theoretical coriollis component of acceleration.

Figure.1: Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration Apparatus

ABBREVIATIONS

SR NO. SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNIT

1 N Motor Speed RPM

2 Ω Angular Velocity Rad/sec

3 F1 Spring Balance Readings for actual force Kg

4 F2 Spring Balance Readings for frictional force kg

5 T Torque Kg - m

6 Q Flow rate of water LPH

7 V Velocity Of water m /sec

40 | P a g e
 8 A Cross Sectional area of tube m2

9 Coriolli’s Component m / sec2

10 G Acceleration due to gravity m / sec2

11 Density of water Kg/m3

12 L Length of pipe m

OBJECTIVE:-

The apparatus has been designed to enable students to measure thevarious parameters
comprising the Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration.
The purpose of test machine is to study the following.

• Study of Coriollis component of acceleration.

• To find relation between actual and theoretical Coriollis component ofacceleration.

INTRODUCTION :-

To maintain this acceleration long enough for measurements to be taken the conventional
slider mechanism is replaced by two streams of water flowing radially outwards from an
inverted ‘T’ shaped tube, which is rotated about its vertical axis so that the water in passing
along the tube is subjected to aCoriolli’s Component of Acceleration.

DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE :-

The Apparatus is shown in fig. Two MS tubes, projecting radially from a central Perspex header
tube, are rotated by a Permanent Magnet DirectCurrent swinging field motor, mounted vertically
in a bearing housing.

A spring balance attached to a fixed swinging field motor with a fixedarmed length
measures the torque supplied by the motor.

The speed of rotation of the motor is measured by an Electronic RPMProximity sensor along
with motor speed control unit.

▪ Water from the pump flows to the header tube through the control valve.
▪ The water flow rate is shown on the rotameter.
▪ The water leaving the radial tubes returns to the pump via drain valve.
▪ The splash tank and all the accessories are mounted on a fabricated steelframe.

41 | P a g e
 THEORY :-

B’
r’
r” r + r


0 Fig.3.a Fig.3.b

b’ b
r’ s
r’

μ

a ωr
ω(r + r) 
ω
Figure.3.c

Consider the motion of the slider B on the crank OA. Let OA rotate with constant angular velocity
rad/sec., and slider B have a velocity V radiallyoutwards relative to the crank center O. The velocity
diagram for the slider in two positions separated by angular displacement , See fig. 3(a) & 3 (b)

On the same diagram represents the resultant change of velocity of the slider. This velocity
has two components and in the radial and tangential directions respectively.

Tangential Components = = S+S = Vsin +(w(r+ r) ) = V + r (1)

Rate of change of tangential velocity =V t + r/ t= V + V = 2V
(2)

Equation (2) represents the Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration. This acceleration is made
up of two components, one due to the increase of the radiusand the other from the changing
direction of the crank.

42 | P a g e
 HYDRAULIC ANALOGY:

ω r’

r r

Consider dia. of short column of the fluid of length r at distance r from the axis of rotation of
the tube, as shown in Fig.

Then if the velocity of the fluid relative to the tube is V and the angular velocity of the tube is
, the Coriolli’s component of acceleration of the columnis 2V in a direction perpendicular to,
and in the plane of rotation of the tube.

The torque T applied by the tube to produce this acceleration is then

T= ----- 2V r ------------------ (3)
G Where, is the weight of the short column of fluid. If ‘ ’ is the specific weightof the fluid and ‘ a’
is the cross-section area of the tube outlet, then = a r (4)

Substituting eqn 4 in eqn 3

T = 2Vr ------ a r

G And the complete torque applied to a column of length “L” is given by

T = 0ʃL 2.V. . .a. r. r ---g

T = (V ) ----------------------------- a L2
g

---------
T = Ca --- a L2 Ca=2V from eqn 2
2 gOr Coriolli’s Component of acceleration

Ca =Where, T = Torque measured at the motor in (Kg – m)

g = 9.81 m / sec2 = Radius of rotation x(spring balance reading with Water – spring balance
reading without water)

43 | P a g e
 ω = Angular
velocity = 2 N/
60 ( rad / sec)a =
Cross sectional
area of tube in
(m2)
L = Length of tube
in (m)

2g T
-------------

44 | P a g e
ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATIONS:

SR
NAME PHOTOGRAPHS SPECIFICATIONS QTY
NO.
.

Make : EEE
I/P Voltage : 240 VAC I/P
1 CONTROL current : 5A 01
PANEL Button: mains, Start, speed
control.
Fuse : 5 A

Make : SCIENTIFIC
DEVICES
2 Model no.: SDE33F12 01
ROTAMETER Range : 0-2500 LPH
Connection : 1” BSP (F)
Use : flow rate of water

Make : KIRLOSKAR
BROTHERS LTD.
Sr. No. : D21YX066795
3 Model : jalraj ultraPower : 01
PUMP 0.5 HP Head : 6 to 26 mtr.
Speed : 2700 RPM
I/P Supply : 220 VACUse :
water pumping

Make : TACHOMETRIC
CONTROLS
Sr. No. :8544.12.20.211
4 Power : 0.5 HP Speed : 01
MOTOR
1500 RPM
I/P Supply : 220 VAC
Current rating : 2.6 A Use :
rotational motion

45 | P a g e
 BALL VALVE
5 Make: starina series 02
Size : 1”
Use : bypass and drain

6 01
BELT Type : v-shaped belt
Model no. : A900
LP/A34

SPRING
7 BALANCE Make : SALTER 01
Range : 50g-10 kg

8 PULLEY 02
Driver pulley dia : 3”
Driven pulley dia : 6”

9 PROXIMITY Make : BAUMER 01

SENSOR Model no. :
IGYX12P17B3/S14L

46 | P a g e
10 BEARING 01
Make : NTN
Model no. : YET 203

INITIAL START UP PROCEDURE :

STEP PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS

NO. DESCRIPTION

Fill the splash tank with clean

water from the openslot in the
01.
centre of the acrylic cover.

02. Make sure that the silicon tube

is inside the header tube.

Tube outside tube inside

Header tube header tube

47 | P a g e
 03. Ensure that flow control and
drain valve are fully open.

Open position of valves

Now connect the spring

04. balance to the motor using
connecting hooks. Ensure that
the spring balance reading is
on the upper side.

Now adjust the spring balance

zero position by rotating the
knob of spring balance. While
05. adjusting zero ensure that the
motor and spring balance are
perpendicular to each other.

Once the perpendicularity and

06. zero reading is achieved tight
the adjustable knob.

NOW THE MACHINE IS READY FOR TAKING EXPERIMENTS.

48 | P a g e
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE :-

STEP PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS

NO. DESCRIPTION
01. Ensure that machine is ready according to the intial startup procedure.

02. Switch the MAINS to

ONposition.

Now push the start

03. button on the control
panel to ON position.

After switching the main

switch, with the help of
04. driveincrease the
speed of Motor up to
some certain speed (say
200 rpm).

Take the readings on the

a) Spring balance for
05. initialtorque.
b) R.P.M. Indicator for
speed of the shaft.

Spring balance

49 | P a g e
 Now start the water
06. pump using the toggle
switch located at the
back of the control panel.

With the help of flow

control valve adjust water
07. level constant (any level)
in the vertical header
tube so that water does
not overflow through
central glass tube.

08. Now adjust the speed to

its Previous value (200
rpm)

50 | P a g e
 Take the readings on the
a.Spring balance for final
torque.
b.Rotameter for L.P.H.
09. c.R.P.M. Indicator
for speed of the
shaft.
Spring balance rotameter

speed

Now switch off the water

10. pump and by drive adjust

11. Repeat the procedure by varying the speed of shaft and take the readings.

PRECAUTIONS:
▪ Before switching the start button, ensure that the pump toggle switch isin OFF position.
▪ Also ensure that the flow control valve and the drain valve are fullyopen before starting
pump.
▪ Ensure that the motor speed control knob is at zero position.
▪ Keep the mains ‘OFF’ when the trial is complete.
▪ Increase the speed gradually.
▪ While closing the test bring the dimmer to zero position and thenswitch 'OFF' the motor.

OBSERVATIONS:

• Length of rotating arms = 266 mm 0.266 mtr

• Outer diameter of tube (do) = 10 mm 0.01 mtr
• Cross section area of tube (A) 0.0000785 mtr^2

51 | P a g e
 • Distance of spring balance = 80 mm 0.08 mtr
From center of motor (X)
∏ = 3.14
Density of water = 1000 Kg/m^3
Length of pipe = 335 mm 0.335 mtr
acceleration due to gravity= 9.81 mtr/sec^2
Where, Speed ratio between pipe&motor =2

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Speed Spring balance reading Water flow

Sr.no
(RPM) (kg) (LPH)

Initial (F1) Final (F2)

CALCULATIONS:-

SAMPLE READING

Theoretical Coriolli’s component of acceleration in m / sec2

▪ V = Velocity of Water in m / secV = Q / A

Where,

Q = Flow rate of Water in LPH

A = Cross Sectional area of tube = ( / 4) x d2 m2

ω = Angular velocity in rad/ sec

ω =2 N/60

= Coriolli’s Component (Theoretical) in m / sec2

=2xVxω

Experimental Coriolli’s component of acceleration in m /sec2

52 | P a g e
 Force = Final force – initial force in kg

F = F2 – F1

T = Torque to Accelerate the water in Kg – m

T = (F2 – F1) x X

Actual Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration in m / sec2

2g T

x a x L2

Where,

= Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3

L = Length of pipe = 0.335 m
a = Pipe Cross Section area = 4.7 x 10-5 m2

g = 9.81 m / sec2

RESULT:-

These two values were found to agree reasonably well and particularly at low angular velocities.
Sources of error may arise from inaccuracies in the measurements of the water flow rate and the
motor torque.

MACHINE TROUBLE SHOOTING:

START-UP
FAULT INVESTIGATION
SR.NO. SEQUENCE

Switch to AC Switching of AC ON/OFF is not Check AC ON/OFF switch.

1.
ON/OFF performed. 1. Check main FUSE is ok.

53 | P a g e
 1.Check AC ON/OFF switch.
2.Check that the start button is
pressed.
2. MOTOR ON/OFF 3. Check condition and wiring of the
MOTOR not ON
switch is ON ON/OFF switch.
4. Check velocity control knob is not
at zero.

Check if proxy sensor is well

Cycle count/motor speed not connected and light is flashing on
Motor is on seen
3. and off when the motor is rotating.

Water not pumping in the 1. Ensure the pump toggle switch

splash tank. is in ON position.
Pump on 2. Check that the flow control valve
4. and drain are not fully closed.

OBSERVATION :

• Length of rotating tubes = 266 mm 0.266 mtr

• Outer diameter of tube (d) = 10 mm 0.01 mtr
• Cross section area of tube (A) 0.0000785 mtr^2
• Distance of spring balance = 80 mm 0.08 mtr
From center of motor (X)
∏ = 3.14
Density of water (ƍ) = 1000 Kg/m^3
Length of pipe(L) = 335 mm 0.335 mtr
acceleration due to gravity= 9.81 mtr/sec^2
Where, Speed ratio between pipe&motor
=2
OBSERVATION TABLE :
Spring Balance
Angular Flow rate Velocity
Speed Readings in kg Torque Coriollies Cmponents of
Velocity of Of
In Initial Final In acceleration in
In water water in
r.p.m. force force Kg - m m/sec^2
Rad/sec In LPH m /sec
(F1) (F2)
N ω F1 F2 T Q V Theo. Experimental
300 31.4 0.6 2 0.112 1500 5.308 333.33 249.44
175 18.31667 0.5 1.2 0.056 1250 4.423 162.04 124.72
148 15.49067 0.5 1 0.04 1000 3.539 109.63 89.08
116 12.14133 0.35 0.6 0.02 900 3.185 77.33 44.54

54 | P a g e
CALCULATIONS:-
SAMPLE
READING:
Calculations for Theoretical Coriolli’s component of acceleration

•Velocity of Water (V) in m / sec

V= Q / (A x 3600 1500/(0.785 x 10˄-4 x3600 x
x1000) = 1000)
V= 5.307856 mtr/sec^2 Where,
Q = Flow rate of Water in LPH
A = Cross Sectional area of tube = (∏ / 4) x d^2 m^2

•Angular velocity (w)in rad / sec

ω = (2 x∏x N)/60
ω
= 31.4 m / sec

• Coriolli’s Component (Theoretical) (v)in m / sec2

v= 2xVxω
v= 333.3333 m / sec^2

Calculations for Actual Coriolli’s component of

acceleration
Force = Actual force – Frictional force in kg
F = F2 – F1
F
= 1.4 Kg

•Torque to Accelerate the water(T) in Kg – m

T
= ((F2 - F1)x X ) = (2-1) x 0.08
0.112 kg-m

•Actual Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration in m / sec2

V = 2gT 2 x 9.81 x 0.112

= 1000 x 0.0000785 x
ρ x a x L² (0.335)²

55 | P a g e
 V = 249.4352 mtr/sec^2(Act.)

Questions:

1. What is the purpose of the Coriolis acceleration experiment?

2. Which component measures the speed of the motor in the experiment?

3. What is the unit of Coriolis acceleration?

4. What is the function of the rotameter in the apparatus?

5. What happens to Coriolis acceleration when water velocity increases?

6. What does the splash tank prevent?

7. What happens if the speed of the motor is increased?

56 | P a g e
 Experiment 7
Aim: To study the governors and to obtain controlling force curve of Watt, Porter, Proell and spring
controlled governors

ABBREVIATIONS USED :

SR NO. SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNIT

01 L Length of each link mtr

02 Lv Length of vertical in Hartnell mtr

03 Lh Length of the horizontal in Hartnell mtr

04 h0 Initial height of governor mtr

05 r0 Initial radius of rotation mtr

06 Wb Weight of each ball Kg

07 Ws Weight of sleeve Kg

Distance between pivot & center of

08 A mtr
sleeve

57 | P a g e
 09 X Sleeve Displacement mtr

10 N Speed of Rotation rpm

11 R Radius of rotation mtr

12 Angular velocity rad / sec

13 FC Centrifugal Force kg

14 Angle of inclination of the arm degree

OBJECTIVE :-

To study different types of governors & to determine the centrifugalforce for various
loads on each governor.
INTRODUCTION :-

The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are variations
in loads e.g. when load on an engine increase or decrease, obviously its speed will, respectively
decrease or increase to the extentof variation of load. This variation of speed has to be controlled
by the governor, within small limits of mean speed. This necessitates that when the load
increase and consequently the speed decreases, the supply of fuel to the engine has to be
increased accordingly to compensate for the loss of the speed, so as to bring back the speed to
the mean speed. Conversely, when the load decreases and speed increases, the supply of fuel
has to be reduced.
The function of the governor is to maintain the speed of an engine within specific limit whenever
there is a variation of load. The governor should have its mechanism working in such a way,
that the supply of fuel is automatically regulated according to the load requirement for
maintaining approximately a constant speed. This is achieved by the principle of centrifugal
force. The centrifugal type governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the
rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force.
Governors are broadly classified as:

a) Centrifugal Governors.

b) Inertia Governors.

The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls
by an equal and opposite radial force, known as controlling force.

58 | P a g e
In Inertia governors the position of the balls are affected by the forces set by an angular
acceleration or deceleration of the given spindle in addition to centrifugal forces on the balls.
EXPERIMENTATION :

➢ Determination of characteristics of sleeve position against controllingforce and speed.

➢ Plotting of characteristic of radius of rotation against force.

➢ Obtaining the graph of governor speed V/s sleeve displacement.

➢ Obtaining the governor characteristics i.e. the graph of controlling force v/s radius of the
ball center.

DESCRIPTION OF UNIT :

▪ The drive unit consists of a small electric motor connected through 'Timer' belt to drive shaft.
▪ Motor and main shaft are mounted on a rigid M.S. Base plate in vertical fashion.
▪ The spindle is supported in ball bearings. The optional governor mechanism can be mounted
on spindle.
▪ Precise speed control is afforded by the speed control unit and counter hole over the spindle
shaft and the speed is directly indicated on control unit screen.
▪ A graduated scale is fixed to the sleeve and guided in vertical direction.
▪ The apparatus is designed to exhibit the characteristics of the spring-loaded governor and
dead weight governor.
▪ The center sleeve of the porter and Proell governors incorporates a weight sleeve to which
weights may be added.
▪ The Hartnell Governor provided means of varying spring rate and initial compression level
and mass of rotating weight. This enables the Hartnell Governor, to be operated as a stable or
unstable governor.

EXPERIMENTAL THEORY :

3. PORTER GOVERNOR :

In case of porter governor, a central heavy load is attached to the sleeve. The central load and
sleeve moves up & down the spindle. This additional down word force increase the speed of
revolution required to enable the balls to rise toany predetermine level.

59 | P a g e
 Fig.1: Porter governor

The optional governor mechanism can be mounted on spindle. The speed control unit controls the
precise speed and speed of the shaft is measured with the help of RPM Sensor.

7. PROELL GOVERNOR :

Proell governor is similar to the porter governor having a heavy central load at sleeve. But it differs
from porter governor in the arrangement of balls. The balls are carried on the extension of the
lower arms instead of at the junction of upper and lower arms. The center sleeve of the Porter
and Proell governors incorporates a weight sleeve to which weights can be added.

Fig. no. 2 Proell governor

In the Proell Governor, with the use of flyweights (Forming full ball) the governor becomes highly
sensitive. Under these conditions large sleeve displacement is observed for very small change in
speed. In order to make it suitable, it is necessary to carry out the experiments by using half ball
flyweight on each side.
8. HARTNELL GOVERNOR :

A Hartnell governor is a spring loaded governor as shown in figure. It consists of two bell crank
levers pivoted at the points O, O to the frame. The frame is attached to the governor spindle and
60 | P a g e
therefore rotates with it.

Each lever carries a ball at the end of the vertical arm and a roller at the end of the horizontal arm.
A helical spring in compression provides equaldownward forces on the two rollers through a collar
on the sleeve.

SPECIFICATIONS:-

SR NO. NAME PHOTOGRAPH SPECIFICATIONS QTY.

Make: EEEDisplay,
ControlPanel (mains, start & speed
01 01
control) Knob.

PowerCable Make: POLYCAB

02 Length: 1mtr. 01

Make: BAUMER
Model: IGYX12P17B3/S14L M
ProximitySensor – 12, PNP/NO,
03 01
Max load – 300 mA,
10 – 30VDC.

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 Make : TACHOMETRIC
CONTROLS
PMDC motor, Model-TM-90,
04 Motor 1/4thHP, 1500rpm,
0 – 180 VDC,1.25A
01
Sr.No. : 8575.12.20.209

GraduatedScale
05 RANGE : 0-80 mm 01

06 Glass Fuse - 630 mA & 2A 02

07 Weight set Weight : 0.5 Kg 04

08 Governors Porter Governor 01

Proell Governor 01

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 Hartnell Governor 01

ɸ =2mm, L=145mm 01

ɸ =3mm, L=145mm 01
09 Springs
ɸ =4mm, L=145mm 01

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE :-

The governor mechanism under test is fitted with the chosen rotating weights and spring, where
applicable and inserted into the drive unit. Thefollowing procedure may then be followed for Proell
& Porter governors:

STEP
PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS
NO.

Arrange the set up as a porter or Proell

governor. This can be done By placing the long
& short sleeve on the vertical spindle of the
01. governor.

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 Coincide the link with the bracket on the
02. aluminum sleeve and fix it with the help of screw
driver provided.

03. To add the desired weight, Lift the governorin

upward direction.

04. Slide the desired weight through the sleeve and

put the governor to its initial position.

After arranging the desired governor, put given

05. spacers & tighten the knob at the top as shown
in figure.

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 Give supply to control unit & switch ON the unit
06. by pressing the MAINS.

Push the Start button as the display gives the

07. command to press START.

Increase the governor speed slowly, until the

center sleeve rises off the lower stop & reaches
the desired level on the graduated scale.
08. (Do not increase the speed rapidly as the pointer
may hit the stopper on the scale.)

Note the various displacements from the

09. graduated scale and respective speed of
governor from the display of control unit.

10. Repeat the procedure from step no. 3 to 9 by varying the load (weight). Theresult may
be plotted as curves of speed against sleeve position.

The following procedure may then be followed for Hartnell governors:

STEP
PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS
NO.

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 Arrange the set up for Hartnell governor. This
can be done by removing the long & short sleeve
on the vertical spindle of the governor.
01.

02. Insert the lower spring guide and then

desired spring in the sleeve.

03. Now, to apply compressive load tighten the

spring stopper.

04. Fix the Hartnell unit by the spacer and knob

provided.

05. Give supply to control unit & switch ON the unit

by pressing the MAINS.

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 06. Push the Start button as the display gives the
command to press START.

Increase the governor speed slowly, until the

center sleeve rises off the lower stop & reaches
the desired level on the graduated scale.
07. (Do not increase the speed rapidly as the
pointer may hit the stopper on the scale.)

Note the various displacements from the

08. graduated scale and respective speed of
governor from the display of control unit.

09. Repeat the procedure from step no. 2 to 9 for different springs. The result may be
plotted as curves of speed against sleeve position.

PRECAUTIONS:

1 Keep the mains ‘OFF’ when the trial is complete.

2 Increase the speed gradually.
3 Take the sleeve displacement reading when the pointer remains steady.
4 See that at higher speed the load on sleeve does not hit the upper sleeve ofthe governor.
5 While closing the test bring the dimmer to zero position and then switch'OFF' the motor.

PORTER GOVERNOR

OBSERVATION:

DESCRIPTION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT

Length of each link L mtr
Initial height of governor h0 mtr
Initial radius of rotation r0 mtr

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 Weight of each ball Wb kg
Weight of sleeve Ws kg
Distance between pivot & center of sleeve a mtr

Go on increasing the speed gradually and take the readings of speed of rotation 'N' and
corresponding sleeve displacement 'X', radius of rotation 'r,' at any position.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. No. N (rpm) X (mm) W (Kg)

1
2
3
4
5

Where,
X = Sleeve Displacement in mmN = Speed of Governor in RPM
= Angular velocity in rad / secFC =Centrifugal Force in kg.
W = weight of each ball in Kgr = Radius of rotation in mm

CALCULATIONS:

• h = Height of the Governor in meter

h = ho - x/2

• = Angle of inclination of the arm (or upper link) to the vertical Cos = h / L = (ho -
x/2) / L

• r = Radius of Rotation in meter

r = 50 + L Sin or

• = Angular Velocity in rad /sec

= (2 N) /60

• Fc = Centrifugal force in Kg
Fc= (Wb) 2 xr

GRAPHS:
68 | P a g e
• Force V/s radius of
rotation.
• Speed V/s sleevedisplacement

PROELL GOVERNOR
OBSERVATION:

DESCRIPTION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT

Length of each link L mtr
Initial height of governor h0 mtr
Initial radius of rotation r0 mtr
Weight of each ball Wb kg
Weight of sleeve Ws kg
Distance between pivot & center of sleeve a mtr
Go on increasing the speed gradually and take the readings of speed of rotation 'N' and
corresponding sleeve displacement 'X' complete the following table draws the following graphs.
• Speed Vs sleeve displacement ‘X’.
• Then for any displacement 'X' of the sleeve it is possible to find 'r' and 'N'. Force 'F' be found by
knowing 'r' and 'N'

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. No. N (rpm) X (mm) W (Kg)

1
2
3

Where,
x = Sleeve Displacement in mmN = Speed of Governor in RPM
= Angular velocity in rad / secFC = Centrifugal Force in kg.
W = Weight of each ball in Kgr = Radius of rotation in mm

CALCULATIONS:

• h = Height of the Governor in meter

h = ho - x/2

• = Angle of inclination of the arm (or upper link) to the vertical Cos = h / L = (ho -
x/2) / L

• r = Radius of Rotation in meter

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r = 50 + L Sin or

• = Angular Velocity in rad /sec

= (2 N) /60

• Fc = Centrifugal force in Kg
Fc= (Wb) 2 xr

GRAPH :
Force V/s radius of rotation.

Speed V/s sleeve displacement

HARTNELL GOVERNOR

OBSERVATIONS:

DESCRIPTION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT

Length of vertical Lv mtr
Length of the horizontal Lh mtr
Initial radius of rotation r0 mtr
Weight of each ball Wb kg
Free height of spring hs mtr
Weight of sleeve W kg

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Measure initial compression of the spring. Go on increasing the speed gradually and take the
readings of speed of rotation ‘N’ and corresponding sleeve displacement 'x' radius of rotation r at
any position could be found as follows:
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. No. N (rpm) X (mm) W (Kg)

1
2
3
4
5

Where,
x = Sleeve Displacement in mmN = Speed of Governor in RPM
= Angular velocity in rad / sec
FC = Centrifugal Force in kg. W = Weight of each ball in Kgr = Radius of rotation in mm

CALCULATIONS:-

• r = Radius of Rotation in meterr = ro + x (a) / (b).

• = Angular Velocity in rad /sec

= (2 N) /60

• Fc = Centrifugal force in Kg
Fc= (Wb) 2 xr

GRAPHS :
• Force V/s radius of rotation.
• Speed V/s sleeve displacement

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Figure.4.

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MACHINE TROUBLE SHOOTING:

SR.NO. START-UP FAULT INVESTIGATION

SEQUENCE

1. Switch to AC ON/OFF Switching of AC 1. Check AC ON/OFF switch.

ON/OFF is not 2. Check main FUSE is ok.
performed.

1.Check AC ON/OFF switch.

MOTOR ON/OFF MOTOR not ON
2. switch is ON 2. Check that the start button is
pressed.

3. Check condition and wiring of the

ON/OFF switch.

4. Check velocity control knob is not at

zero.

1.Check if proxy sensor is well

3. Motor is on Cycle count/motor connected and light is flashing on and
speed not seen off when the motor is rotating.

PORTER GOVERNOR

OBSERVATIONS:

1) Length of each link L= 125 mm 0.125 mtr

2) Initial height of governor h0 = 62 mm 0.062 mtr

for Wa=0.5 kg
Initial height of governor h0 = 37 mm 0.037 mtr
for Wa=1 kg
3) Initial radius of
r0 =
rotation 137.5 mm 0.1375 mtr

4) Weight of each ball Wb = 0.7 Kg

73 | P a g e
 5) Weight of sleeve Ws = 0.5 Kg

6) distance between
a= 50 mm 0.05 mtr
pivot & center of sleeve

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

initial height of governor (h0) = 0.062 mtr

Sr. N X Wa
No. (RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 185 0.062
2 175 0.048
0.5
3 166 0.033
4 152 0.011

initial height of governor (h0) = 0.037 mtr

Sr. N X Wa
No. (RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 185 0.037
2 165 0.027
1
3 155 0.011
4 150 0.002

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS :-

Sr. No. N (RPM) X (mtr) Wa (Kg)

2 175 0.048 0.5

1)Weightof each ball,Wb

0.7
= 0.7 Kg

2) Height of the
Governor,h = h0 - X/2
74 | P a g e
 0.062-(0.048/2) 0.038 mtr

3) Angle of inclination, α
= cos α = h/L = (h0 - X/2)/L

cos α = h/L = (0.038/0.125) 72.29 °

4) Radius of rotation, r a + L sin

= α

0.050 +( 0.125× Sin 72.29) 0.1691 mtr

5) Angular velocity, ω
= (2 × π × N) / 60

(2 × 3.14 × 175)/60 18.32 rad/sec

6) Centrifugal force, Fc
= (Wb) × ω² × r

Kg
0.7× 18.32^2× 0.1691 39.71
RESULT :-

Weight
Height of Angle of Radius of Angular Centrifugal
speed of each
Sr. No. Governor inclination rotation velocity force
ball
N Wb h α r ω Fc
(RPM) Kg mtr ° mtr rad/sec Kg
1 185 0.031 75.63 0.1711 19.36 44.91
2 175 0.038 72.29 0.1691 18.32 39.71
0.7
3 166 0.046 68.65 0.1664 17.37 35.17
4 152 0.057 63.12 0.1615 15.91 28.61
5 185 0.019 81.48 0.1736 19.36 45.57
6 165 0.7 0.024 79.15 0.1728 17.27 36.07
7 155 0.032 75.39 0.1710 16.22 31.50
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 8 150 0.036 73.25 0.1697 15.70 29.28

PROELL GOVERNOR

OBSERVATION :-

1) Length of each link (L) = 125 mm 0.125 mtr

2) Initial height of governor (h0) for

0.065
Wa=0.5 65 mm mtr
Initial height of governor (h0) for Wa=1 52 mm 0.052 mtr

3) Initial radius of rotation (r0) = 145 mm 0.145 mtr

4) Weight of each ball (Wb)

0.350+0.350
= 0.7 Kg

5) Weight of sleeve (Ws) = 0.5 Kg

6) distance of Pivot and centre of sleeve

0.05
(a) 50 mm mtr

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Initial height of governor (h0) = 0.065 mtr

N X Wa
Sr. No.
(RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 120 0.065 0.5
2 115 0.042 0.5
3 100 0.03 0.5
4 90 0.015 0.5

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 initial height of governor (h0) = 0.052 mtr

Sr. N X Wa
No. (RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 130 0.052 1
2 125 0.04 1
3 110 0.009 1
4 106 0.002 1

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS :-

Sr. No. N (RPM) X (mtr) Wa (Kg)

2 115 0.042 0.5

1)Weightof each ball,Wb = 0.7 0.7 Kg

2) Height of the Governor h = h0 - X/2 in mm

h = 0.065-(0.042/2)= 0.044 mtr

3) Angle of inclination, α = cosα = h/L = (h0 - X/2)/L

cosα = h/L = (0.044/0.125)= 69.38

4) Radius of rotation, r = 0.050 + L sinα in mm

0.050 +( 0.125× Sin 69.38) = 0.1670 mtr

5) Angular velocity,ω = (2 ×π ×N) / 60

(2 ×3.14×115)/60 = 12.04 rad/sec

6) Centrifugal force, Fc = (Wb) × ω² × r in Kg

77 | P a g e
 0.7 ×12.04^2 ×0.1670 16.94 Kg
RESULT :-

Weight Angle Radius

speed of each Height of of of Angular Centrifugal
Sr. ball Governor inclination rotation velocity force
No. N Wb h α r w Fc

(RPM)
Kg mtr mtr rad/sec Kg
1 120 0.0325 74.92 0.1707 12.56 18.85
2 115 0.044 69.38 0.1670 12.04 16.94
0.7
3 100 0.05 66.41 0.1646 10.47 12.62
4 90 0.0575 62.60 0.1610 9.42 10.00
5 130 0.026 77.98 0.1723 13.61 22.33
6 125 0.032 75.16 0.1708 13.08 20.47
0.7
7 110 0.0475 67.66 0.1656 11.51 15.37
8 106 0.051 65.91 0.1641 11.09 14.14

HARTNELL GOVERNOR

OBSERVATION :-

1) Length of vertical(Lv) = 75 mm 0.075 mtr

2) Length of the horizontal(Lh) = 122 mm 0.122 mtr

3) Initial radius of rotation (r0) = 170 mm 0.17 mtr

4) Weight of each ball (Wb) = 0.7 Kg

5) Free height of spring = 145 mm 0.145 mtr

6) Weight of sleeve (W) = 0.5 Kg

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 OBSERVATION TABLE :-

For Spring of Wire Diameter 2 mm

N
Sr. No. (RPM) X (mtr)
1 260 0.036
2 230 0.031
3 180 0.028

For Spring of Wire Diameter 3 mm Where

1) X = Sleeve displacement in mtr.
Sr. No. N (RPM) X (mtr) 2) N = Speed of govrnor in RPM.
1 260 0.03 3) ω = Angular velocity in rad/sec.
4) Fc = Centrifugal force in
2 220 0.025 Kg.
5) W =Weight of sleeve in
3 185 0.006 Kg.
6) r = Radius of rotation in
mtr.

For Spring of Wire Diameter 4 mm

N
Sr. No. (RPM) X (mtr)
1 400 0.024
2 340 0.022
3 280 0.003

SAMPLE CALCULATION FOR READING 1 :-

1) Radius of rotation, r in mtr. = r0 + (X ×(Lv/Lh))

79 | P a g e
 0.170 +(0.036×(0.075/0.122))
= 0.1921 mtr

2) Angular velocity,w in rad/sec = (2 × π × N) / 60

(2 × 3.14 × 260)/60
= 27.21 rad/sec

3) Centrifugal force, Fc in kg = (Wb) × ω² × r

0.7 × 27.21²
×0.1921 = 99.60 Kg

RESULT :-

Radius ofAngularCentrifugal
Sr. No. speed
rotation velocity force
displacement
N X r w Fc
(RPM) mtr mtr rad/sec Kg
For Spring of Wire
Diameter 2 mm
1 260 0.036 0.1921 27.21 99.60
2 230 0.031 0.1891 24.07 76.69
3 180 0.028 0.1872 18.84 46.52
For Spring of Wire
Diameter 3 mm
1 260 0.03 0.1884 27.21 97.69
2 220 0.025 0.1854 23.03 68.80
3 185 0.006 0.1737 19.36 45.59
For Spring of Wire
Diameter 4 mm
1 400 0.024 0.1848 41.87 226.69
2 340 0.022 0.1835 35.59 162.69
3 280 0.003 0.1718 29.31 103.32

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Questions:
1. What is the main function of a governor in an engine?
2. Which force is balanced by the controlling force in centrifugal governors?
3. What type of governor uses a spring for controlling sleeve movement?
4. What happens to the sleeve displacement when the governor speed increases?
5. Name the governor that places balls on the lower arm extensions.
6. What is the unit of governor speed measurement?
7. Which governor uses a central weight for stability?
8. What happens if governor speed is increased too rapidly during an experiment?
9. What is the main controlling element in a centrifugal governor?
10. Which component measures sleeve displacement in governor experiments?

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 Experiment 8
AIM: Study of Four bar mechanism with different Inversions.

Theory-

A four bar link mechanism or linkage is the most fundamental of the plane kinematics linkages. It
is a much preferred mechanical device for the mechanization and control of motion due to its
simplicity and versatility. Basically, it consists of four rigid links which are connected in the form of
a quadrilateral by four pin joints. A link that makes complete revolutions is the crank, the link
opposite to the fixed link is the coupler and the fourth link a lever or rocker if oscillates or another
crank, if rotate. By fixing the link.

Inversions of Four Bar Chain

1. Beam engine (crank and lever mechanism) .

A part of the mechanism of a beam engine (also known as crank and lever mechanism) which
consists of four links. In this mechanism, when the crank rotates about the fixed centre A, the lever
oscillates about a fixed centre D. The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston rod which
reciprocates due to the rotation of the crank. In other words, the purpose of this mechanism is to
convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

Figure.1. Beam Engine

3. Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism).

The mechanism of a coupling rod of a locomotive (also known as double crank mechanism)
which consists of four links.

82 | P a g e
 Figure.2. Coupling rod of locomotive

In this mechanism, the links 2 and 4 (having equal length) act as cranks and are connected to the
respective wheels. The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link A B is fixed in order to maintain
a constant centre to centre distance between them. This mechanism is meant for transmitting
rotary motion from one wheel to the other wheel.

4. Watt’ s indicator mechanism (Double lever mechanism). A *Watt’s indicator

mechanism (also known as Watt's straight-line mechanism or double lever mechanism) which
consists of four

Figure. 4. Watt Indicator mechanism

Single Slider Crank Chain

A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bar chain. It consist of one sliding pair
and three turning pairs. It is, usually, found in reciprocating steam engine mechanism.

This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice versa.

83 | P a g e
In a single slider crank chain, as shown in Fig. the links 1 and 2, links 2 and 3, and links 3 and 4
form three turning pairs while the links 4 and 1 form a sliding pair.

Figure. 5. Single Slider crank mechanism

The link 1 corresponds to the frame of the engine, which is fixed. The link 2 corresponds to the
crank ; link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod and link 4 corresponds to cross-head. As the
crank rotates, the cross-head reciprocates in the guides and thus the piston reciprocates in the
cylinder.

Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain

We have seen in the previous article that a single slider crank chain is a four-link mechanism.

We know that by fixing, in turn, different links in a kinematic chain, an inversion is obtained and we
can obtain as many mechanisms as the links in a kinematic chain. It is thus obvious, that four
inversions of a single slider crank chain are possible. These inversions are found in the following
mechanisms.

1.Pendulum pump or Bull engine. In this mechanism, the inversion is obtained by fixing the
cylinder or link 4 ( i.e. sliding pair), as shown in Fig. In this case, when the crank (link 2) rotates,
the connecting rod (link 3) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link 4 at A and the piston
attached to the piston rod (link 1) reciprocates. The duplex pump which is used to supply feed
water to boilers have two pistons attached to link 1, as shown in Fig.

84 | P a g e
 Figure. 6. Pendulum Pump and Bull Engine

1. Oscillating cylinder engine. The arrangement of oscillating cylinder engine

mechanism, as shown in Fig., is used to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
In this mechanism, the link 3 forming the turning pair is fixed. The link 3 corresponds to
the connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine mechanism. When the crank (link 2)
rotates, the piston attached to piston rod (link 1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4)
oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link at A.

Figure.7. Oscillating cylinder engine

9. Rotary internal combustion engine or Gnome engine. Sometimes back, rotary internal
combustion engines were used in aviation. But now-a-days gas turbines are used in its place.
It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and all revolves about fixed centre D, as shown in
Fig., while the crank (link 2) is fixed. In this mechanism, when the connecting rod (link4) rotates,
the piston (link 3) reciprocates inside Rotary engine the cylinders forming link 1.

85 | P a g e
 Figure. 8. Rotary IC engine

5. Whitworth quick return motion mechanism. This mechanism is mostly used in shaping
and slotting machines. In this mechanism, the link CD (link 2) forming the turning pair is fixed,
as shown in Fig.. The link 2 corresponds to a crank in a reciprocating steam engine. The
driving crankC A (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular speed. The slider (link 4) attached to the
crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar PA (link 1) which oscillates at a pivoted point D. The
connecting rod PR carries the ram at R to which a cutting tool is fixed. The motion of the tool
is constrained along the line RD produced, i.e. along a line passing through D and
perpendicular to CD.

Double slider crank chain

86 | P a g e
 Figure.9: Double slider crank mechanism

A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs is known as double
slider crank chain, as shown in Fig. 5.34. We see that the link 2 and link 1 form one turningpair
and link 2 and link 3 form the second turning pair. The link 3 and link 4 form one sliding pair andlink
1 and link 4 form the second sliding pair.

❖ Inversions of Double Slider Crank Chain

The following three inversions of a double slider crank chain are important from the subject point
of view :

1. Elliptical trammels.It is an instrument used for drawing ellipses. This inversion is obtained
by fixing the slotted plate (link 4), as shown in Fig.. The fixed plate or link 4 has two straight grooves
cut in it, at right angles to each other. The link 1 and link 3, are known as sliders and form
slidingpairs with link 4. The link A B (link 2) is a bar which forms turning pair with links 1 and 3.
When the links 1 and 3 slide along their respective grooves, any point on the link 2 such as P
traces out an ellipse on the surface of link 4, as shown in Fig. (a). A little consideration willshow
that AP and BP are the semi-major axis and semi-minor axis of the ellipse respectively. This canbe
proved as follows :

Figure.10. Elliptical Trammel mechanism

2. Scotch yoke mechanism. This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion into a
reciprocating motion. The inversion is obtained by fixing either the link 1 or link 3. In Fig., link 1
is fixed. In this mechanism, when the link 2 (which corresponds to crank) rotates about B as
centre, the link4 (which corresponds to a frame) reciprocates. The fixed link 1 guides the
frame.

87 | P a g e
 Figure.11: Scotch Yoke mechanism

Questions:

1. What is the primary purpose of a four-bar mechanism?

2. Which mechanism is used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion?

3. Name an application of the Whitworth quick return mechanism.

4. What type of linkage does a beam engine mechanism represent?

5. Which inversion of the slider crank chain was used in early aviation?

6. What is the role of a coupler in a four-bar linkage?

7. Which mechanism is used to draw ellipses?

8. What does a Scotch yoke mechanism convert?

9. In the coupling rod of a locomotive, which links act as cranks?

10. What type of motion does the Watt’s indicator mechanism produce?

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 Experiment 9
AIM: Study of different Clutches

THEORY: A clutch is a mechanical device that provides for the transmission of power (and
therefore usually motion) from one component (the driving member) to another (the driven
member) when engaged, but can be disengaged.
Clutches are used whenever the transmission of power or motion must be controlled either in
amount or over time (e.g., electric screwdrivers limit how much torque is transmitted through use
of a clutch; clutches control whether automobiles transmit engine power to the wheels).

CLUTCH TYPE:
1. FRICTION CLUTCHES- The vast majority of clutches ultimately rely on frictional forces for
their operation. The purpose of friction clutches is to connect a moving member to another
that is moving at a different speed or stationary, often to synchronize the speeds, and/or to
transmit power. Usually, as little slippage (difference in speeds) as possible between the two
members is desired.
The friction clutches of the following types are important –
2. Disc or plate clutches.
3. Cone clutches.
4. Centrifugal clutches.

SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH: A single disc or plate clutch consists of a clutch plate whose both
sides are faced with a frictional material. It is mounted on the hub which is free to move axially
along the splines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the clutch body which
is bolted to the flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate with the engine crank
shaft or the driving shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate towards the flywheel by a
set of strong springs which are arranged radially inside the body. The three levers (also known
as release levers or fingers) are carried on pivots suspended from the case of the body. These
are arranged in such a manner so that the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the
inward movement of a trust bearing. The bearing is mounted upon a forked shaft and moves
forward when the clutch pedal is pressed. When the clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage
forces the thrust release bearing to move in towards the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of
the levers inward. The axial pressure exerted by the spring provides a frictional force in
the circumferential direction when the relative motion between the driving and driven members
tends to take place. If the torque due to this frictional force exceeds the torque to be transmitted,
then no slipping takes place and the power is transmitted from the driving shaft to the driven

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 shaft.

Figure.1. Single plate clutch

MULTI-PLATE CLUTCH: Multi-plate clutch consists of more than one clutch plates contrary to
single plate clutch which consists of only one plate. Friction surfaces are made in case of multi-
plate clutch. Due to increased number of friction surfaces, a multi-plate clutch can transmit large
torque. Therefore, it is used in racing cars and heavy motor vehicles which have high engine
power. The clutch plates are alternatively fitted with engine shaft and the shaft of gear box. He
plates are firmly held by the force of coil springs and they assembled in a drum.
One plate slide in the grooves on the flywheel and the next plate slides on spines provided on
pressure plate. Thus, each alternate plate slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other on
splines of pressure plate. If we take two consecutive plates, then one has inner and other has
outer splines.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of coil spring,
hence the clutch plates are disengaged and engine flywheel and gear box are decoupled.
However, when clutch pedal is not pressed the clutch remain in engaged position and the power
can be transmitted from engine flywheel to the gear box.

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 Figure. 2: Multi Plate Clutch

CONE CLUTCH: Cone clutch is the type which consists of inner and outer conical surface. Its
outer cone is keyed with driving shaft and the inner cone is free to slide on the driven shaft axially
because of splines. Axial force which is required to connect clutch is provided with the help of
helical compression spring. In this connecting position, power is transmitted from driving shaft to
outer cone with the help of key. After that power is transmitted from outer cone to inner cone with
the help of friction.

A cone clutch has conical friction surfaces. The cone's taper means that a given amount of
movement of the actuator makes the surfaces approach (or recede) much more slowly than in a
disc clutch. As well, a given amount of actuating force creates more pressure on the mating
surfaces. The best-known example of a cone clutch is a synchronizer ring in a manual
transmission. The synchronizer ring is responsible for "synchronizing" the speeds of the shift hub
and the gear wheel to ensure a smooth gear change.

In the end power then transmit from inner cone to driven shaft by using splines. For disconnecting
the clutch, fork is placed in shifting collar to shift it axially towards right side. This process releases
pressure between both cones and no transmission of torque occurs.
For friction lining in inner cone, we use leather, asbestos or cork. Conical force results into notable
frictional force because of the action of wedge. The angle which is recommended for semi cone is
12.50. In construction cone clutches are very simple and easy to disconnect. But the major
drawback for using this cone is the strict requirement for coaxially of two shafts.

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 Figure.3. CONE CLUTCHES

APPLICATIONS OF CLUTCHES:

Vehicular (general)-

There are different designs of vehicle clutch but most are based on one or more friction discs
pressed tightly together or against a flywheel using springs. The friction material varies in
composition depending on many considerations such as whether the clutch is "dry" or "wet".
Friction discs once contained asbestos but this has been largely eliminated. Clutches found in
heavy duty applications such as trucks and competition cars use ceramic plates that have a greatly
increased
friction coefficient. However, these have a "grabby" action generally considered unsuitable for
passenger cars. The spring pressure is released when the clutch pedal is depressed thus either
pushing or pulling the diaphragm of the pressure plate, depending on type. However, raising the
engine speed too high while engaging the clutch causes excessive clutch plate wear. Engaging
the clutch abruptly when the engine is turning at high speed causes a harsh, jerky start. This kind
of start is necessary and desirable in drag racing and other competitions, where speed is more
important than comfort.
Automobile powertrain-
In a modern car with a manual transmission the clutch is operated by the left-most pedal using a
hydraulic or cable connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism. On older cars the clutch
might be operated by a mechanical linkage. Even though the clutch may physically be located
very close to the pedal, such remote means of actuation are necessary to eliminate the effect of
vibrations and slight engine movement, engine mountings being flexible by design. With a rigid
mechanical linkage, smooth engagement would be near-impossible because engine movement
inevitably occurs as the drive is "taken up."

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The default state of the clutch is engaged - that is the connection between engine and gearbox is
always "on" unless the driver presses the pedal and disengages it. If the engine is running with
clutch engaged and the transmission in neutral, the engine spins the input shaft of the
transmission, but no power is transmitted to the wheels.

MOTORCYCLES:

Motorcycles typically employ a wet clutch with the clutch riding in the same oil as the transmission.
These clutches are usually made up of a stack of alternating plain steel and friction plates. Some
plates have lugs on their inner diameters that lock them to the engine crankshaft.
Other plates have lugs on their outer diameters that lock them to a basket that turns the
transmission input shaft. A set of coil springs or a diaphragm spring plate force the plates together
when the clutch is engaged.

On motorcycles the clutch is operated by a hand lever on the left handlebar. No pressure on the
lever means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pulling the lever back towards the
rider disengages the clutch plates through cable or hydraulic actuation, allowing the rider to shift
gears or coast. Racing motorcycles often use slipper clutches to eliminate the effects of engine
braking, which, being applied only to the rear wheel, can cause instability.

Questions:
1. What is the primary function of a clutch in an automobile?
2. What type of clutch is commonly used in motorcycles?
3. What happens when the clutch pedal is released in a car?
4. What force is used in centrifugal clutches to engage the clutch?
5. What is the key disadvantage of a cone clutch?
6. Which clutch type provides higher torque transmission due to multiple friction surfaces?
7. What is the typical material used for friction lining in older clutches?
8. What is the function of a synchronizer ring in a manual transmission?
9. What component moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed?
10. What is the default state of a clutch in a vehicle?

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 EXPERIMENT 10

AIM: Study of Brakes and Dynamometers

THEORY: A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Most commonly brakes use
friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be
employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy,
which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in
such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields
to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into
heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example
by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Figure.1: Drum Brakes

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as
the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination
of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or
airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing. Since kinetic

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energy increases with velocity (K=mv^2/2), an object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much
energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking
distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually
have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed. Almost all wheeled
vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for
use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage.
Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples
include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive
bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. Friction
brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then
conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to
brake. When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a
piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake
drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the
wheel down.

Types of brakes: Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or
"pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which
use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used
to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes
use friction.

Figure.2

Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear
surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating
drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum,
commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that
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pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are used, but
less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with
an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake
uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc
surfaces and expand laterally.

Hydraulic brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For example,
an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping
losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override called a Jake brake
to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be
regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.

Figure.3. Hydraulic Brakes

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the
machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a
generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake.

Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is
then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do
not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a
generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes,
and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but
nowadays are often just called “electromagnetic brakes” as well).

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Band Brakes: A band brake is a primary or secondary brake, consisting of a band of friction
material that tightens concentrically around a cylindrical piece of equipment to either prevent it
from rotating (a static or "holding" brake), or to slow it (a dynamic brake).

Figure.4. Band Brakes

Disk Brakes: A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction caused
by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers. The brake disc (or rotor in
American English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites
such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel
and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device
called a brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically
against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes
convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon
known as brake fade.

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 Figure.5: Disk Brakes

Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the 1890s. Compared to drum brakes,
disc brakes offer better stopping performance, because the disc is more readily cooled. As a
consequence discs are less prone to brake fade; and disc brakes recover more quickly from
immersion (wet brakes are less effective). Most drum brake designs have at least one leading
shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its braking
force is always proportional to the pressure placed on the brake pad by the braking system via
any brake servo, braking pedal or lever. This tends to give the driver better "feel" to avoid
impending lockup

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Prony brake dynamometer Construction & Working :

• A simplest form of an Absorption type Dynamometer is a Prony Brake Dynamometer It consists

of Two wooden blocks around a Pulley fixed to the shaft of an engine , whose power is required
to be measured . The blocks are clamped by means of Two Bolts and Nuts.

A Helical Spring is provided between the nut and the upper block to adjust the Pressure on the
Pulley to Control its Speed.

The upper block has a long lever attached to it and carries a weight W at its outer end . A Counter
Weight is placed at the other end of the lever which balances the Brake when Unloaded.

Two stops S1 and S2 are provided to limit the motion of the Lever.

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Rope Brake Dynamometer

• It is another form of absorption type dynamometer.

• It consists of one, two or more ropes wound around the flywheel or rim of a pulley fixed
rigidly to the shaft of an engine.
• The upper end of the ropes is attached to a spring balance while the lower end of the
ropes is kept in position by applying a dead weight as shown in the figure.
• In order to prevent the slipping of the rope over the flywheel, wooden blocks are placed at
intervals around the circumference of the flywheel.

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Brake power P = Torque transmitted x Angular speed of the engine
= (W-S) x [(D+d)/2] x 
= (W-S) x [(D+d)/2] x 2N/60
P= (W-S) x [(D+d)] x N/60

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Questions:
1. What is the role of friction in braking systems?
2. What is brake fade?
3. What material is commonly used for making brake discs?

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4. Which type of brake uses a generator to recharge batteries?
5. What is the primary disadvantage of drum brakes compared to disc brakes?
6. What is the working principle of eddy current brakes?
7. Which type of brake consists of a band tightening around a cylinder?
8. What is the main advantage of hydraulic brakes?
9. What is the purpose of stops (S1 and S2) in a Prony brake dynamometer?
10. What happens to the braking distance when velocity triples? .

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