01/03/2025, 15:55 R (programming language) - Wikipedia

R (programming language)
R is a programming language for statistical computing
R
and data visualization. It has been adopted in the fields of
data mining, bioinformatics and data analysis.[9]

The core R language is augmented by a large number of

extension packages, containing reusable code,
documentation, and sample data.

R software is open-source and free software. It is licensed

by the GNU Project and available under the GNU General
Public License.[3] It is written primarily in C, Fortran, and
R itself. Precompiled executables are provided for various
operating systems.

As an interpreted language, R has a native command line

interface. Moreover, multiple third-party graphical user
interfaces are available, such as RStudio—an integrated
R terminal
development environment—and Jupyter—a notebook
interface. Paradigms Multi-paradigm: procedural,
object-oriented, functional,
reflective, imperative, array[1]

History Designed by Ross Ihaka and Robert

Gentleman
Developer R Core Team
First appeared August 1993

Stable release 4.4.3[2] / 28 February 2025

Typing Dynamic
discipline
Platform arm64 and x86-64
Ross Ihaka, co-originator of R License GPL-2.0-or-later[3]
Filename .r[4]
R was started by professors Ross Ihaka and Robert extensions .rdata
Gentleman as a programming language to teach
.rhistory
introductory statistics at the University of Auckland.[10]
.rds
The language was inspired by the S programming
language, with most S programs able to run unaltered in .rda[5]
R.[6] The language was also inspired by Scheme's lexical Website r-project.org (https://www.r-pr
scoping, allowing for local variables.[1] oject.org/)
Influenced by

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The name of the language, Lisp · S[6] · Scheme[1]

R, comes from being both Influenced
an S language successor as
Julia[7] pandas[8]
well as the shared first
letter of the authors, Ross R Programming at Wikibooks
and Robert.[11] In August
1993, Ihaka and Gentleman posted a binary of R on StatLib — a data archive
website.[12] At the same time, they announced the posting on the s-news
mailing list.[13] On December 5, 1997, R became a GNU project when
version 0.60 was released.[14] On February 29, 2000, the 1.0 version was
Robert Gentleman, co- released.[15]
originator of R

Packages
R packages are collections of functions, documentation, and data that
expand R.[16] For example, packages add report features such as
RMarkdown, Quarto,[17] knitr and Sweave. Packages also add the
capability to implement various statistical techniques such as linear,
generalized linear and nonlinear modeling, classical statistical tests,
spatial analysis, time-series analysis, and clustering. Easy package
installation and use have contributed to the language's adoption in
data science.[18]

Base packages are immediately available when starting R and provide

the necessary syntax and commands for programming, computing,
graphics production, basic arithmetic, and statistical functionality.[19] Violin plot created from the R
visualization package ggplot2
The Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) was founded in
1997 by Kurt Hornik and Friedrich Leisch to host R's source code,
executable files, documentation, and user-created packages.[20] Its name and scope mimic the
Comprehensive TeX Archive Network and the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network.[20] CRAN originally
had three mirrors and 12 contributed packages.[21] As of 16 October 2024, it has 99 mirrors[22] and 21,513
contributed packages.[23] Packages are also available on repositories R-Forge, Omegahat, and
GitHub.[24][25][26]

The Task Views (https://cran.r-project.org/web/views/) on the CRAN web site list packages in fields such as
causal inference, finance, genetics, high-performance computing, machine learning, medical imaging, meta-
analysis, social sciences, and spatial statistics.

The Bioconductor project provides packages for genomic data analysis, complementary DNA, microarray,
and high-throughput sequencing methods.

The tidyverse package bundles several subsidiary packages that provide a common interface for tasks related
to accessing and processing "tidy data",[27] data contained in a two-dimensional table with a single row for
each observation and a single column for each variable.[28]

Installing a package occurs only once. For example, to install the tidyverse package:[28]

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> install.packages("tidyverse")

To load the functions, data, and documentation of a package, one executes the library() function. To
load tidyverse:[a]

> # Package name can be enclosed in quotes

> library("tidyverse")

> # But also the package name can be called without quotes
> library(tidyverse)

Interfaces
R comes installed with a command line console. Available for installation are various integrated
development environments (IDE). IDEs for R include R.app[29] (OSX/macOS only), Rattle GUI, R
Commander, RKWard, RStudio, and Tinn-R.[30]

General purpose IDEs that support R include Eclipse via the StatET plugin (https://marketplace.eclipse.org/c
ontent/statet-r/) and Visual Studio via R Tools for Visual Studio.

Editors that support R include Emacs, Vim via the Nvim-R plugin (https://www.vim.org/scripts/script.php?sc
ript_id=2628), Kate, LyX via Sweave, WinEdt (website (https://cran.r-project.org/package=RWinEdt)), and
Jupyter (website (https://docs.anaconda.com/anaconda/navigator/tutorials/r-lang/)).

Scripting languages that support R include Python (website (https://rpy2.github.io)), Perl (website (https://m
etacpan.org/module/Statistics::R)), Ruby (source code (https://github.com/alexgutteridge/rsruby)), F#
(website (https://bluemountaincapital.github.io/FSharpRProvider/)), and Julia (source code (https://github.co
m/JuliaInterop/RCall.jl)).

General purpose programming languages that support R include Java via the Rserve socket server (https://cr
an.r-project.org/web/packages/Rserve/index.html), and .NET C# (website (https://rdotnet.github.io/rdotne
t/)).

Statistical frameworks which use R in the background include Jamovi and JASP.

Community
The R Core Team was founded in 1997 to maintain the R source code. The R Foundation for Statistical
Computing was founded in April 2003 to provide financial support. The R Consortium is a Linux
Foundation project to develop R infrastructure.

The R Journal is an open access, academic journal which features short to medium-length articles on the use
and development of R. It includes articles on packages, programming tips, CRAN news, and foundation
news.

The R community hosts many conferences and in-person meetups - see the community maintained GitHub
(https://jumpingrivers.github.io/meetingsR/) list. These groups include:

UseR!: an annual international R user conference (website (https://www.r-project.org/conferenc

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es/))
Directions in Statistical Computing (DSC) (website (https://www.r-project.org/conferences/))
R-Ladies: an organization to promote gender diversity in the R community (website (https://rlad
ies.org))
SatRdays: R-focused conferences held on Saturdays (website (https://satrdays.org/))
R Conference (website (https://rstats.ai/))
posit::conf (formerly known as rstudio::conf) (website (https://www.posit.co/conference/))

Implementations
The main R implementation is written primarily in C, Fortran, and R itself. Other implementations include:

pretty quick R (http://www.pqr-project.org) (pqR), by Radford M. Neal, attempts to improve

memory management.
Renjin is an implementation of R for the Java Virtual Machine.
CXXR (https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/projects/cxxr) and Riposte[31] are implementations of R
written in C++.
Oracle's FastR (https://github.com/oracle/fastr) is an implementation of R, built on GraalVM (htt
ps://www.graalvm.org/).
TIBCO Software, creator of S-PLUS, wrote TERR — an R implementation to integrate with
Spotfire.[32]
Microsoft R Open (MRO) was an R implementation. As of 30 June 2021, Microsoft started to phase out
MRO in favor of the CRAN distribution.[33]

Commercial support

Although R is an open-source project, some companies provide commercial support:

Oracle provides commercial support for the Big Data Appliance, which integrates R into its
other products.
IBM provides commercial support for in-Hadoop execution of R.

Examples

Hello, World!
"Hello, World!" program:

> print("Hello, World!")

[1] "Hello, World!"

Basic syntax
The following examples illustrate the basic syntax of the language and use of the command-line interface.
(An expanded list of standard language features can be found in the R manual, "An Introduction to R".[34])

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In R, the generally preferred assignment operator is an arrow made from two characters <-, although = can
be used in some cases.[35]

> x <- 1:6 # Create a numeric vector in the current environment

> y <- x^2 # Create vector based on the values in x.
> print(y) # Print the vector’s contents.
[1] 1 4 9 16 25 36

> z <- x + y # Create a new vector that is the sum of x and y

> z # Return the contents of z to the current environment.
[1] 2 6 12 20 30 42

> z_matrix <- matrix(z, nrow = 3) # Create a new matrix that turns the vector z into a 3x2 matrix object
> z_matrix
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 2 20
[2,] 6 30
[3,] 12 42

> 2 * t(z_matrix) - 2 # Transpose the matrix, multiply every element by 2, subtract 2 from each element
in the matrix, and return the results to the terminal.
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 2 10 22
[2,] 38 58 82

> new_df <- data.frame(t(z_matrix), row.names = c("A", "B")) # Create a new data.frame object that
contains the data from a transposed z_matrix, with row names 'A' and 'B'
> names(new_df) <- c("X", "Y", "Z") # Set the column names of new_df as X, Y, and Z.
> print(new_df) # Print the current results.
X Y Z
A 2 6 12
B 20 30 42

> new_df$Z # Output the Z column

[1] 12 42

> new_df$Z == new_df['Z'] && new_df[3] == new_df$Z # The data.frame column Z can be accessed using $Z,
['Z'], or [3] syntax and the values are the same.
[1] TRUE

> attributes(new_df) # Print attributes information about the new_df object

$names
[1] "X" "Y" "Z"

$row.names
[1] "A" "B"

$class
[1] "data.frame"

> attributes(new_df)$row.names <- c("one", "two") # Access and then change the row.names attribute; can
also be done using rownames()
> new_df
X Y Z
one 2 6 12
two 20 30 42

Structure of a function
One of R's strengths is the ease of creating new functions.[36] Objects in the function body remain local to
the function, and any data type may be returned. In R, almost all functions and all user-defined functions are
closures.[37]

Create a function:

# The input parameters are x and y.

# The function returns a linear combination of x and y.
f <- function(x, y) {
z <- 3 * x + 4 * y

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# an explicit return() statement is optional, could be replaced with simply `z`
return(z)
}

Usage output:

> f(1, 2)
[1] 11

> f(c(1, 2, 3), c(5, 3, 4))

[1] 23 18 25

> f(1:3, 4)
[1] 19 22 25

It is possible to define functions to be used as infix operators with the special syntax `%name%` where
"name" is the function variable name:

> `%sumx2y2%` <- function(e1, e2) {e1 ^ 2 + e2 ^ 2}

> 1:3 %sumx2y2% -(1:3)
[1] 2 8 18

Since version 4.1.0 functions can be written in a short notation, which is useful for passing anonymous
functions to higher-order functions:[38]

> sapply(1:5, \(i) i^2) # here \(i) is the same as function(i)

[1] 1 4 9 16 25

Native pipe operator

In R version 4.1.0, a native pipe operator, |>, was introduced.[39] This operator allows users to chain
functions together one after another, instead of a nested function call.

> nrow(subset(mtcars, cyl == 4)) # Nested without the pipe character

[1] 11

> mtcars |> subset(cyl == 4) |> nrow() # Using the pipe character
[1] 11

Another alternative to nested functions, in contrast to using the pipe character, is using intermediate objects:

> mtcars_subset_rows <- subset(mtcars, cyl == 4)

> num_mtcars_subset <- nrow(mtcars_subset_rows)
> print(num_mtcars_subset)
[1] 11

While the pipe operator can produce code that is easier to read, it has been advised to pipe together at most
10 to 15 lines and chunk code into sub-tasks which are saved into objects with meaningful names.[40] Here is
an example with fewer than 10 lines that some readers may still struggle to grasp without intermediate
named steps:

1 (\(x, n = 42, key = c(letters, LETTERS, " ", ":", ")"))

2 strsplit(x, "")[[1]] |>
3 (Vectorize(\(chr) which(chr == key) - 1))() |>
4 (`+`)(n) |>
5 (`%%`)(length(key)) |>
6 (\(i) key[i + 1])() |>
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7 paste(collapse = "")
8 )("duvFkvFksnvEyLkHAErnqnoyr")

Object-oriented programming
The R language has native support for object-oriented programming. There are two native frameworks, the
so-called S3 and S4 systems. The former, being more informal, supports single dispatch on the first
argument and objects are assigned to a class by just setting a "class" attribute in each object. The latter is a
Common Lisp Object System (CLOS)-like system of formal classes (also derived from S) and generic
methods that supports multiple dispatch and multiple inheritance[41]

In the example, summary is a generic function that dispatches to different methods depending on whether
its argument is a numeric vector or a "factor":

> data <- c("a", "b", "c", "a", NA)

> summary(data)
Length Class Mode
5 character character
> summary(as.factor(data))
a b c NA's
2 1 1 1

Modeling and plotting

The R language has built-in support for data modeling and graphics. The
following example shows how R can generate and plot a linear model
with residuals.

# Create x and y values

x <- 1:6
y <- x^2

# Linear regression model y = A + B * x

model <- lm(y ~ x)

# Display an in-depth summary of the model

summary(model)
Diagnostic plots from plotting
# Create a 2 by 2 layout for figures
par(mfrow = c(2, 2)) “model” (q.v. “plot.lm()” function).
Notice the mathematical notation
# Output diagnostic plots of the model allowed in labels (lower left plot).
plot(model)

Output:

Residuals:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.3333 -0.6667 -2.6667 -2.6667 -0.6667 3.3333

Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept) -9.3333 2.8441 -3.282 0.030453 *
x 7.0000 0.7303 9.585 0.000662 ***
---
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

Residual standard error: 3.055 on 4 degrees of freedom

Multiple R-squared: 0.9583, Adjusted R-squared: 0.9478
F-statistic: 91.88 on 1 and 4 DF, p-value: 0.000662

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Mandelbrot set
This Mandelbrot set example highlights the use of complex numbers. It
models the first 20 iterations of the equation z = z2 + c, where c
represents different complex constants.

Install the package that provides the write.gif() function

beforehand:

install.packages("caTools")

R Source code:
"Mandelbrot.gif" graphic created
in R. (Note: Colors differ from
library(caTools)
actual output.)
jet.colors <-
colorRampPalette(
c("green", "pink", "#007FFF", "cyan", "#7FFF7F",
"white", "#FF7F00", "red", "#7F0000"))

dx <- 1500 # define width

dy <- 1400 # define height

C <-
complex(
real = rep(seq(-2.2, 1.0, length.out = dx), each = dy),
imag = rep(seq(-1.2, 1.2, length.out = dy), times = dx)
)

# reshape as matrix of complex numbers

C <- matrix(C, dy, dx)

# initialize output 3D array

X <- array(0, c(dy, dx, 20))

Z <- 0

# loop with 20 iterations

for (k in 1:20) {

# the central difference equation

Z <- Z^2 + C

# capture the results

X[, , k] <- exp(-abs(Z))
}

write.gif(
X,
"Mandelbrot.gif",
col = jet.colors,
delay = 100)

Version names
All R version releases from 2.14.0 onward have codenames that make reference to Peanuts comics and
films.[42][43][44]

In 2018, core R developer Peter Dalgaard presented a history of R releases since 1997.[45] Some notable
early releases before the named releases include:

Version 1.0.0 released on February 29, 2000 (2000-02-29), a leap day

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Version 2.0.0 released on October 4, 2004 (2004-10-04), "which

at least had a nice ring to it"[45]
The idea of naming R version releases was inspired by the Debian and
Ubuntu version naming system. Dalgaard also noted that another reason for
the use of Peanuts references for R codenames is because, "everyone in
statistics is a P-nut".[45]

CD of R Version 1.0.0,
autographed by the core
team of R, photographed R in
Quebec City in 2019

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R release codenames
Release
Version Name Peanuts reference Reference
date

4.4.2 2024-10-31 Pile of Leaves [46] [47]

4.4.1 2024-06-14 Race for Your Life [48] [49]

4.4.0 2024-04-24 Puppy Cup [50] [51]

4.3.3 2024-02-29 Angel Food Cake [52] [53]

4.3.2 2023-10-31 Eye Holes [54] [55]

4.3.1 2023-06-16 Beagle Scouts [56] [57]

4.3.0 2023-04-21 Already Tomorrow [58][59][60] [61]

4.2.3 2023-03-15 Shortstop Beagle [62] [63]

4.2.2 2022-10-31 Innocent and Trusting [64] [65]

4.2.1 2022-06-23 Funny-Looking Kid [66][67][68][69][70][71] [72]

4.2.0 2022-04-22 Vigorous Calisthenics [73] [74]

4.1.3 2022-03-10 One Push-Up [73] [75]

4.1.2 2021-11-01 Bird Hippie [76][77] [75]

4.1.1 2021-08-10 Kick Things [78] [79]

4.1.0 2021-05-18 Camp Pontanezen [80] [81]

4.0.5 2021-03-31 Shake and Throw [82] [83]

4.0.4 2021-02-15 Lost Library Book [84][85][86] [87]

Bunny-Wunnies Freak [88] [89]

4.0.3 2020-10-10
Out

4.0.2 2020-06-22 Taking Off Again [90] [91]

4.0.1 2020-06-06 See Things Now [92] [93]

4.0.0 2020-04-24 Arbor Day [94] [95]

3.6.3 2020-02-29 Holding the Windsock [96] [97]

See It was a dark and stormy [99]

3.6.2 2019-12-12 Dark and Stormy Night
night#Literature[98]

3.6.1 2019-07-05 Action of the Toes [100] [101]

3.6.0 2019-04-26 Planting of a Tree [102] [103]

3.5.3 2019-03-11 Great Truth [104] [105]

3.5.2 2018-12-20 Eggshell Igloos [106] [107]

3.5.1 2018-07-02 Feather Spray [108] [109]

3.5.0 2018-04-23 Joy in Playing [110] [111]

3.4.4 2018-03-15 Someone to Lean On [112] [113]

3.4.3 2017-11-30 Kite-Eating Tree See Kite-Eating Tree[114] [115]

3.4.2 2017-09-28 Short Summer See It Was a Short Summer, Charlie Brown [116]

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3.4.1 2017-06-30 Single Candle [117] [118]

3.4.0 2017-04-21 You Stupid Darkness [117] [119]

3.3.3 2017-03-06 Another Canoe [120] [121]

3.3.2 2016-10-31 Sincere Pumpkin Patch [122] [123]

3.3.1 2016-06-21 Bug in Your Hair [124] [125]

3.3.0 2016-05-03 Supposedly Educational [126] [127]

Very, Very Secure [128] [129][130][131]

3.2.5 2016-04-11
Dishes

3.2.4 2016-03-11 Very Secure Dishes [128] [132]

3.2.3 2015-12-10 Wooden Christmas-Tree See A Charlie Brown Christmas[133] [134]

3.2.2 2015-08-14 Fire Safety [135][136] [137]

3.2.1 2015-06-18 World-Famous Astronaut [138] [139]

3.2.0 2015-04-16 Full of Ingredients [140] [141]

3.1.3 2015-03-09 Smooth Sidewalk [142] [143]

3.1.2 2014-10-31 Pumpkin Helmet See You're a Good Sport, Charlie Brown [144]

3.1.1 2014-07-10 Sock it to Me [145][146][147][148] [149]

3.1.0 2014-04-10 Spring Dance [100] [150]

3.0.3 2014-03-06 Warm Puppy [151] [152]

3.0.2 2013-09-25 Frisbee Sailing [153] [154]

3.0.1 2013-05-16 Good Sport [155] [156]

3.0.0 2013-04-03 Masked Marvel [157] [158]

2.15.3 2013-03-01 Security Blanket [159] [160]

2.15.2 2012-10-26 Trick or Treat [161] [162]

2.15.1 2012-06-22 Roasted Marshmallows [163] [164]

2.15.0 2012-03-30 Easter Beagle [165] [166]

See It's the Easter Beagle, Charlie [168]

2.14.2 2012-02-29 Gift-Getting Season
Brown[167]

2.14.1 2011-12-22 December Snowflakes [169] [170]

See It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie [172]

2.14.0 2011-10-31 Great Pumpkin
Brown[171]

Unsuffered [173] [45]

r-devel N/A
Consequences

See also
Comparison of numerical-analysis software
Comparison of statistical packages
List of numerical-analysis software
List of statistical software
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Rmetrics

Notes
a. This displays to standard error a listing of all the packages that tidyverse depends upon. It may
also display warnings showing namespace conflicts, which may typically be ignored.

References
1. Morandat, Frances; Hill, Brandon; Osvald, Leo; Vitek, Jan (11 June 2012). "Evaluating the
design of the R language: objects and functions for data analysis" (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
3-642-31057-7_6). European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming. 2012: 104–131.
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31057-7_6 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-31057-7_6).
Retrieved 17 May 2016 – via SpringerLink.
2. Peter Dalgaard (28 February 2025). "R 4.4.3 is released" (https://hypatia.math.ethz.ch/piperma
il/r-announce/2025/000708.html). Retrieved 28 February 2025.
3. "R - Free Software Directory" (https://directory.fsf.org/wiki/R#tab=Details). directory.fsf.org.
Retrieved 26 January 2024.
4. "R scripts" (http://mercury.webster.edu/aleshunas/R_learning_infrastructure/R%20scripts.html).
mercury.webster.edu. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
5. "R Data Format Family (.rdata, .rda)" (https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd0
00470.shtml). Loc.gov. 9 June 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
6. Hornik, Kurt; The R Core Team (12 April 2022). "R FAQ" (https://cran.r-project.org/doc/FAQ/R-F
AQ.html#What-are-the-differences-between-R-and-S_003f). The Comprehensive R Archive
Network. 3.3 What are the differences between R and S?. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20221228045640/https://cran.r-project.org/doc/FAQ/R-FAQ.html) from the original on 28
December 2022. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
7. "Introduction" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180620172516/https://docs.julialang.org/en/stabl
e/manual/introduction/#man-introduction-1). The Julia Manual. Archived from the original (http
s://docs.julialang.org/en/stable/manual/introduction/#man-introduction-1) on 20 June 2018.
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Further reading
Wickham, Hadley; Çetinkaya-Rundel, Mine; Grolemund, Garrett (2023). R for data science:
import, tidy, transform, visualize, and model data (2nd ed.). Beijing Boston Farnham
Sebastopol Tokyo: O'Reilly. ISBN 978-1-4920-9740-2.
Gagolewski, Marek (2024). Deep R Programming (https://zenodo.org/record/7490464).
doi:10.5281/ZENODO.7490464 (https://doi.org/10.5281%2FZENODO.7490464). ISBN 978-0-
6455719-2-9.

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External links
R Technical Papers (https://developer.r-project.org/TechDocs/)
Big Book of R (https://www.bigbookofr.com/), curated list of R-related programming books
Books Related to R - R Project (https://www.r-project.org/doc/bib/R-books.html), partially
annotated curated list of books relating to R or S.

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