What is lipids?

Lipids are a broad group of

naturally occurring molecules
which includes fats, waxes,
sterols, fat-soluble vitamins,
monoglycerides, diglycerides,
phospholipids, and others.
It is relatively insoluble in water.

It is soluble in nonpolar organic

solvents such as ether, acetone, CCl4.

It contains C, H, O, sometimes N or
K

It yields fatty acids on hydrolysis.

BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE
1. Stored as a source of
energy in the body.
 1 gram of lipid contains 2.25
as much energy as 1 gram
of Carbohydrate

Lipid (TGL)
Droplets In
Adipose tissue
2. Structural components of biomembranes.
3. ThermalInsulator :
Provides insulation against changes in
external temperature.
4. Lipids
act as electric insulators
in neurons.
 5. Act as metabolic regulators (steroid
hormones and prostaglandins).
6. Act as surfactants and prevents collapse of
lungs during expiration.
7. Lipids are used as detergents.
8. Lipids used in emulsification and intestinal
absorption of non polar nutrients like fatty
acids and fat soluble vitamins.
9. Associated with diseases such as
atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus and obesity.
10. Gives shape and contour to the body.
 Classification of lipids
 Lipids are broadly classified into simple, complex, derived and
miscellaneous lipids, which are further subdivided into different groups
1. Simple lipids : Esters of fatty acids with alcohols. These are mainly of two
types
(a) Fats and oils (triacylglycerols) : These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
The difference between fat and oil is only physical. Thus, oil is a liquid while
fat is a solid at room temperature.
(b) Waxes : Esters of fatty acids (usually long chain) with alcohols other than
glycerol. These alcohols may be aliphatic or alicyclic. Cetyl alcohol is most
commonly found in waxes. Waxes are used in the preparation of candles,
lubricants, cosmetics, ointments, polishes etc.
2. Complex (or compound) lipids : These are esters of fatty acids with alcohols
containing additional groups such as phosphate, nitrogenous base,
carbohydrate, protein etc. They are further divided as follows
(a) Phospholipids : They contain phosphoric acid and frequently a nitrogenous
base. This is in addition to alcohol and fatty acids.
(i) Glycerophospholipids : These phospholipids contain glycerol as the alcohol
e.g., lecithin, cephalin.
(ii) Sphingophospholipids : Sphingosine is the alcohol in this group of
phospholipids e.g., sphingomyelin.
(b) Glycolipids : These lipids contain a fatty acid, carbohydrate and nitrogenous
base. The alcohol is sphingosine, hence they are also called as glycosphingolipids.
Glycerol and phosphate are absent e.g., cerebrosides, gangliosides.
(c) Lipoproteins : Macromolecular complexes of lipids with proteins.
(d) Other complex lipids : Sulfolipids, aminolipids and lipopolysaccharides are
among the other complex lipids.
3. Derived lipids : These are the derivatives obtained on the hydrolysis of group 1
and group 2 lipids which possess the characteristics of lipids. These include glycerol
and other alcohols, fatty acids, mono- and diacylglycerols, lipid (fat) soluble
vitamins, steroid hormones, hydrocarbons and ketone bodies.
4. Miscellaneous lipids : These include a large number of compounds possessing
the characteristics of lipids e.g., carotenoids, squalene, hydrocarbons such as
pentacosane (in bees wax), terpenes etc.
NEUTRAL LIPIDS : The lipids which are uncharged are referred to as neutral
lipids. These are mono-, di-, and triacylglycerols, cholesterol and cholesteryl esters.
 FATTY ACIDS
 Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chain. They are the
simplest form of lipids.
 Fatty acids mainly occur in the esterified form as major constituents of
various lipids. They are also present as free (unesterified) fatty acids.
 Fatty acids of animal orgin are much simpler in structure in contrast to those of
plant origin which often contain groups such as epoxy, keto, hydroxy and
cyclopentane ring
 Most of the fatty acids that occur in natural lipids are of even carbons (usually
14C – 20C). This is due to the fact that biosynthesis of fatty acids mainly
occurs with the sequential addition of 2 carbon units.
 Both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids almost equally occur in the natural
lipids.
 Fatty acids with one double bond are monounsaturated, and those with 2 or
more double bonds are collectively known as polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA).
 Nomenclature of fatty acids
 The saturated fatty acids end with a suffix -anoic
(e.g., octanoic acid) while the unsaturated fatty
acids end with a suffix -enoic
 Numbering of carbon atoms
The carbons adjacent to this (carboxyl C) are 2,
3, 4 and so on or alternately D, E, J and so on.
The terminal carbon containing methyl group is
known omega (Z) carbon.
 There are other conventions of representing
the double bonds. '9 indicates that the double
bond is between 9 and 10 of the fatty acid. 
9 represents the double bond position (9 and
10) from the  end. Naturally occurring
unsaturated fatty acids belong to  9,  6 and
 3 series.
 ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
 The fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore, should be
supplied in the diet are known as essential fatty acids (EFA). Chemically, they
are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely linoleic acid (18 : 2; 9, 12) and
linolenic acid (18 : 3; 9, 12, 15).
 Arachidonic acid (20 : 4; 5, 8, 11, 14) becomes essential, if its precursor
linoleic acid is not provided in the diet in sufficient amounts.
 Linoleic acid and linolenic acid are essential since humans lack the enzymes
that can introduce double bonds beyond carbons 9 to 10
 Essential fatty acids are required for the membrane structure and function,
transport of cholesterol, formation of lipoproteins, prevention of fatty liver etc.
 They are also needed for the synthesis of another important group of
compounds, namely eicosanoids
 1. Simple Lipids
Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
a. Fats :esters of fatty acids with
glycerol.
eg: triglycerides
b. Waxes: esters of fatty acids with
higher molecular weight monohydric
alcohols.
eg: beeswax
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
(TRIGLYCERIDES)

Triglycerides are most

common
◦3 fatty acids attached to
glycerol
◦held together by ester
linkage
 Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are
the esters of glycerol with fatty acids. The fats
and oils that are widely distributed in both plants
and animals are chemically triacylglycerols.

 They are insoluble in water and non-polar in

character and commonly known as neutral fats.
Triglycerides are lipids with three fatty acids
attached to a glycerol
 The formation reaction
 Chemical (Autocatalytic)
 Enzymatical (Lipase)

O
H2C OH 3 fatty acids O
H2C O C - R1
OH + O HO - C - R1 O
HC
= HC O C - R2 +3H20
H2C OH HO - C - R2 O O
glycerol H2C O C - R3
HO - C - R3
triacylglycerol
© 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
At 20°C, triglycerides
can be classified as
fats or oils
Solid = fats
Liquid = oil
Triacylglycerols of plants, in general, have higher content of
unsaturated fatty acids compared to that of animals.
 Fats as stored fuel : Triacylglycerols are the most abundant
group of lipids that primarily function as fuel reserves of
animals. The fat reserve of normal humans (men 20%,women
25% by weight) is sufficient to meet the body’s caloric
requirements for 2-3 months.

 Fats primarily occur in adipose tissue :

Adipocytes of adipose tissue—predominantly found in the
subcutaneous layer and in the abdominal cavity—are specialized
for storage of triacylglycerols. The fat is stored in the form of
globules dispersed in the entire cytoplasm. And
surprisingly, triacylglycerols are not the structural
components of biological membranes.

 PROPERTIES OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

1. Hydrolysis : Triacylglycerols undergo

stepwise enzymatic hydrolysis to finally liberate
free fatty acids and glycerol. The process of
hydrolysis, catalysed by lipases is important for
digestion of fat in the gastrointestinal tract and fat
mobilization from the adipose tissues.
2. Saponification : The hydrolysis of
triacylglycerols by alkali to produce glycerol
and soaps is known as saponification.
3. Hydrogenation of Unsaturated
Fats
• Oils can be converted to semi-solids through
hydrogenation that converts the double bonds to single
bonds using H/metalic ions
• In the process, some double bonds are converted to
trans form
4. Rancidity : Rancidity is the term used to represent the deterioration of
fats and oils resulting in an unpleasant taste. Fats containing unsaturated
fatty acids are more susceptible to rancidity.
Rancidity occurs when fats and oils are exposed to air, moisture, light,
bacteria etc.

Hydrolytic rancidity occurs due to partial hydrolysis of triacylglycerols

by bacterial enzymes.
Oxidative rancidity is due to oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. This
results in the
formation of unpleasant products such as dicarboxylic acids, aldehydes,
ketones etc.
Rancid fats and oils are unsuitable for human consumption
Antioxidants : The substances which can prevent the occurrence of oxidative
rancidity are known as antioxidants.
Trace amounts of antioxidants such as tocopherols (vitamin E),hydroquinone,
gallic acid and D-naphthol are added to the commercial preparations of fats and
oils to prevent rancidity.
Propyl gallate, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT) are the antioxidants used in food preservation.
5. Lipid peroxidation in-vivo : In the living cells, lipids undergo oxidation to
produce peroxides and free radicals which can damage
the tissue. The free radicals are believed to cause inflammatory diseases, ageing,
cancer, atherosclerosis etc.
It is fortunate that the cells
possess antioxidants such as vitamin E, urate and superoxide dismutase to prevent
in-vivo lipid peroxidation
Schematic diagram of simple and complex lipids.
 COMPOUND LIPIDS
Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols
along with an additional group.

Simple lipid + Additional group =

= Compound Lipids

a. Phospholipids:
b. Glycolipids:
c. Other Complex Lipids:
 COMPOUND LIPIDS
Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols
along with an additional group.

Phospholipids Glycolipids Others

Glycerphospholipids
-Phosphatidyl choline Cerebrosides Lipoproteins
- Phosphatidyl ethanolamine
Gangliosides Aminolipids
- Phosphatidyl serine
- Phosphatidyl inositol Globosides
- Cardiolipin
- Plasmalogens
Sphingophospholipids
 Functions of phospholipids
1. In association with proteins, phospholipids form the structural components of
membranes and regulate membrane permeability.

2. Phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin and cardiolipin) in the mitochondria maintain the

conformation of electron transport chain components, and thus cellular respiration.

3. Phospholipids participate in the absorption of fat from the intestine.

4. Phospholipids are essential for the synthesis of different lipoproteins, and thus
participate in the transport of lipids.

5. Accumulation of fat in liver (fatty liver) can be prevented by phospholipids, hence they
are regarded as lipotropic factors.

6. Arachidonic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid liberated from phospholipids, serves as a

precursor for the synthesis of eicosanoids (prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes
etc.).
7. Phospholipids participate in the reverse cholesterol transport and thus help in the
removal of cholesterol from the body.

8. Phospholipids act as surfactants (agents lowering surface tension). For instance,

dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine is an important lung surfactant. Respiratory distress
syndrome in infants is associated with insufficient production of this surfactant.

9. Cephalins, an important group of phospholipids participate in blood clotting.

10. Phosphatidylinositol is the source of second messengers—inositol triphosphate and

diacylglyceol, that are involved in the action of some horomones

11. Required for blood coagulation (prothrombin to thrombin, activation of factor 8 by

factor 9).

12. Phospholipids of myelin sheath provides insulation around nerve fibers.

 PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Phospholipids are similar in
structure to triglycerides but one
of the fatty acid groups is
replaced with a phosphate group
(phosphoric acid) and nitrogenous
base, and alcohol
• hence known as diglycerides.
Usually, C1 contains a`saturated fatty acid while C2 contains an
unsaturated fatty acid.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• The phosphate group is ionized and
negatively charged, therefore water
molecules are attracted to this polar
part of the molecule, this end is then
hydrophilic and soluble in water.
• The two fatty acid chains are
insoluble and nonpolar.
• In cells, these phopholipids occur with proteins
and cholesterol in a bilayer in the form of a cell
membrane.
• Bilayers occur when the hydrophobic tails line
up with one another with the hydrophilic heads
exposed
 Membranes
• Complex lipids form the membranes around cells
and small structures within cells.
• In aqueous solution, complex lipids spontaneously
form into a lipid bilayer, with a back-to-back
arrangement of lipid monolayers.
– Polar (hydrophilic) head groups are in contact with the aqueous
environment.
– Nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails are buried within the bilayer
– The arrangement of hydrocarbon tails in the interior can be
rigid (if rich in saturated fatty acids) or fluid (if rich in
unsaturated fatty acids).
 Glycerophospholipids
1. Phosphatidic acid : This is the simplest
phospholipid. It does not occur in good
concentration in the tissues.
Basically, phosphatidic acid is an intermediate in the
synthesis of triacylglycerols and phospholipids.
The other glycerophospholipids containing
different nitrogenous bases or other groups may
be regarded as the derivatives of phosphatidic
acid.
2. Lecithins (phosphatidylcholine): These are
the most abundant group of phospholipids in the
cell membranes. Chemically, lecithin (Greek :
lecithos—egg yolk) is a phosphatidic acid with
choline as the base. Phosphatidylcholines
represent the storage form of body’s choline.
(a) Dipalmitoyl lecithin (Lung surfactant) is an
important phosphatidylcholine found in lungs.
It is a surface active agent and prevents the
adherence of inner surface of the lungs due to
surface tension.
Respiratory distress syndrome in infants is a
disorder characterized by the absence of
dipalmitoyl lecithin.
(b) Lysolecithin is formed by removal of the
fatty acid either at C1 or C2 of lecithin.
3. Cephalins (phosphatidylethanolamine) : Ethanolamine is the nitrogenous base
present in cephalins. Thus, lecithin and cephalin differ with regard to the base.

4. Phosphatidylinositol : The steroisomer myo-inositol is attached to phosphatidic acid to

give phosphatidylinositol(PI).
This is an important component of cell membranes. The action of certain hormones (e.g.
oxytocin, vasopressin) is
mediated through PI.

5. Phosphatidylserine : The amino acid serine is present in this group of

glycerophospholipids. Phosphatidylthreonine is also found in certain tissues.

6. Plasmalogens : When a fatty acid is attached by an ether linkage at C1 of glycerol in

the glycerophospholipids, the resultant compound is plasmalogen.
Phosphatidalethanolamine is the most important which is similar in structure to
phosphatidylethanolamine but for the ether linkage (in place of ester). An
unsaturated fatty acid occurs at C1. Choline, inositol and serine may substitute
ethanolamine to give other plasmalogens.
7. Cardiolipin : It is so named as it was first isolated from heart muscle.
Structurally, a cardiolipin consists of two molecules of phosphatidic acid held by an
additional glycerol through phosphate groups.
It is an important component of inner mitochondrial membrane and essential for
mitrochondrial function. Decreased cardiolipin levels may result in mitochondrial
dysfunction, aging, hypothyroidism, cardioskeletal myopathy (Barth syndrome).
Cardiolipin is the only phosphoglyceride that possesses antigenic properties
Sphingomyelins (sphingophospholipids)
 Sphingosine is an amino alcohol present in sphingomyelins (sphingophospholipids).
They do not contain glycerol at all. Sphingosine is attached by an amide linkage to a
fatty acid to produce ceramide.
 The alcohol group of sphingosine is bound to phosphorylcholine in sphingomyelin
structure Sphingomyelins are important constituents of myelin and are found in good
quantity in brain and nervous tissues.
 Ceramide, acts as a second messenger (signaling molecule) by regulating
programmed cell death (apoptosis), cell cycle and cell differentiation.
 A ceramide containing a 30-carbon fatty acid is a major component of skin, and it
regulates skin’s water permeability.
 GLYCOLIPIDS
o Lipids containing carbohydrate moiety -
Glycolipids
o Alcoholic component – Sphingosine
o Ceramide – Common group of all Glycolipids
o Occur in brain, spinal cords and other tissues.
o Predominant in outer leaflet of biomembranes
Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids) are important constituents of cell membrane
and nervous tissues (particularly the brain).
Cerebrosides are the simplest form of glycolipids. They contain a ceramide and
one or more sugars. Galactocerebroside (galactosylceramide) and
glucocerebroside are the most important glycolipids. It contains the fatty acid
cerebronic acid.

Sulfagalactosylceramide is the sulfatide derived from galactosylceramide.

Gangliosides : These are predominantly found in ganglions and are the most
complex form of glycosphingolipids. They are the derivatives of cerebrosides
and contain one or more molecules of N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA), the
most important sialic acid.
The most important gangliosides present in the brain are GM1, GM2, GD, and
GT
The ganglioside, GM2 that accumulates in Tay-Sachs disease a rare inherited
condition that mainly affects babies and young children
 1. Cerebrosides

2. Sulfatides

Types of
Glycolipids
3. Globosides

4. Gangliosides
 LIPOPROTEINS
 Lipoproteins are molecular complexes that consist of lipids and proteins
(conjugated proteins). They function as transport vehicles for
lipids in blood plasma. Lipoproteins deliver the lipid components (cholesterol,
triacylglycerol etc.) to various tissues for utilization
 A lipoprotein basically consists of a neutral lipid core (with triacylglycerol
and/or cholesteryl ester) surrounded by a coat shell of phospholipids,
apoproteins and cholesterol. The polar portions (amphiphilic) of
phospholipids and cholesterol are exposed on the surface of lipoproteins so
that lipoprotein is soluble in aqueous solution.
1. Chylomicrons : They are synthesized in the intestine and transport exogenous
(dietary) triacylglycerol to various tissues. They consist of
highest (99%) quantity of lipid and lowest (1%) concentration of protein. The
chylomicrons are the least in density and the largest in size, among
the lipoproteins.
2. Very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) :
They are produced in liver and intestine and are responsible for the transport of
endogenously synthesized triacylglycerols.
3. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) : They are formed from VLDL in the blood
circulation. They transport cholesterol from liver to other tissues.
4. High density lipoproteins (HDL) : They are mostly synthesized in liver. Three
different fractions of HDL (1, 2 and 3) can be identified by ultracentrifugation. HDL
particles transport cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver (reverse cholesterol
transport).
5. Free fatty acids—albumin : Free fatty acids in the circulation are in a bound form to
albumin. Each molecule of albumin can hold about 20-30 molecules of free fatty acids.
This lipoprotein cannot be separated by electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis of plasma (serum) lipoproteins
 STEROIDS
Lipids containing Cyclo Pentano Perhydro Phenanthrene (CPPP)
ring
It consists of a phenanthrene nucleus (rings A, B and C) to which a
cyclopentane ring (D) is attached.
 STEROLS

Steroids containing one or more alcoholic group – Sterols

(solid alcohol)
Plant Sterols : Ergosterol, Stigmasterol, Sitosterol

Animal Sterols : Cholesterol

 STEROIDS
 lipids often found in cell membrane (ex
cholesterol)

 consist of 4 fused hydrocarbon rings and several

different functional groups
 CHOLESTEROL
Structure:
Has Steroid Nucleus
OH group at 3rd position
Double bond between 5th & 6th carbons
8-Carbon aliphatic chain containing side chain
at 17th position.

17

3 5

6
 CHOLESTEROL
Chemical Properties
1. Undergoes rapid oxidation to form cholestenones.
2. Hydroxyl group forms esters with acids to form
Cholesterol Esters (cholesterol acetate, palmitate
and propionates)
3. Presence of double bond gives hydrogenation
reactions (similar to unsaturated fatty acids).
4. Colour reactions: LIEBERMANN BURCHARD,
SALKOWSKY, ZAKS.
 Cholesterol (Greek : chole–bile) was first isolated from bile.
Cholesterol literally means ‘solid alcohol from bile.

 Cholesterol is an yellowish crystalline solid. The crystals,

under the microscope, show a notched appearance. Cholesterol
is insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents such as
chloroform, benzene, ether

 Cholesterol is an important determinant of membrane

permeability properties. The occurrence of
cholesterol is much higher in the membranes of
sub-cellular organelles.
 CHOLESTEROL
Biomedical Importance

Structural role – Biomembranes, Lipoproteins

Occur in large amounts in brain and nerve tissues.
Act as insulator against nerve impulses which discharge
electric charges.
Biomolecules synthesized from cholesterol
Bile acids
Vitamin D
Steroid hormones : Androgens, Estrogens, Progesterone,
Aldosterone etc
 Biochemical Test – 1.Iodine number
 It is defined as the grams (number) of iodine absorbed by 100 g
of fat or oil.
 Iodine number is useful to know the relative unsaturation of fats,
and is directly proportional to the content of unsaturated fatty
acids.
 Thus lower is the iodine number, less is the degree of
unsaturation.
 help to know the degree of adulteration of a given oil
-2. Saponification number
 It is defined as the mg (number) of KOH
required to hydrolyse (saponify) one gram
of fat or oil.
 Saponification number is a measure of the
Coconut oil : 250–260

average molecular size of the fatty acids

present.
 The value is higher for fats containing short
chain fatty acids.
 -3. Reichert-Meissl (RM) number
 It is defined as the number of ml 0.1 N KOH required
to completely neutralize the soluble volatile fatty acids
distilled from 5 g fat.
 RM number is useful in testing the purity of butter
since it contains a good concentration of volatile fatty
acids (butyric acid, caproic acid and caprylic acid).
 This is in contrast to other fats and oils which have a
negligible amount of volatile fatty acids.
 Butter has a RM number in the range 25-30, while it is
less than 1 for most other edible oils.
 Thus any adulteration of butter can be easily tested
by this sensitive RM number.
 4. Acid number (acid value)
 It is defined as the number of mg of KOH
required to completely neutralize free fatty acids
present in one gram fat or oil.
 In normal circumstances, refined oils should be
free from any free fatty acids. Oils, on
decomposition—due to chemical or bacterial
contamination—yield free fatty acids.
 Therefore, oils with increased acid number are
unsafe for human consumption.
 Colour reaction - Cholesterol
1. Liberman Buchard reaction
Liebermann–Burchard or acetic anhydride test is used
for the detection of cholesterol.
Cholesterol is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, which
causes the formation of a cholesterol sulfate ester. The
cholesterol sulfate ester is then further treated with
acetic anhydride and the reaction is followed by the
addition of various reagents like acetic acid and acetic
anhydride.
This process leads to the formation of various colored
compounds solution becomes red or pink, then purple,
blue and finally bluish – green colour
The intensity of colour is measured using a
spectrophotometer
 2. Salkowaki test
 Salkowski test is used to detect cholesterol in a
solution.
 It is an important test used to detect cholesterol
depending on the colors (distinct and clear
colors) that yield from the reaction of
cholesterol with concentrated sulfuric acid.
 3. -Acrolin test
 Acrolin test is a general test for the presence of glycerin or fats.
It is an important test for glycerol where in the presence of a
dehydrating agent potassium bisulfate (KHSO4);
 the glycerol part of the molecule is dehydrated and formed a
volatile substance with a smell that is similar to the smell of
burned fat (unsaturated aldehyde) that called Acrolin.
 This test is distinctive for glycerol whether it is free or combined
with fatty acids.
 Lipid biosynthesis
 Lipids are indispensable for cell structure and function. Due to their hydrophobic and
non-polar nature, lipids differ from rest of the body compounds and are unique in their
action.
 Lipids constitute about 15-20% of the body weight in humans.
 Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are the most abundant lipids comprising 85-
90% of body lipids. Most of the
triacylglycerols (TG; also called neutral fat or depot fat) are stored in the adipose tissue
and serve as energy reserve of the body.
 FATTY ACID OXIDATION
 The fatty acids in the body are mostly
oxidized by β -oxidation. β -Oxidation may be
defined as the oxidation of fatty acids on the
β -carbon atom. This results in the sequential
removal of a two carbon fragment, acetyl CoA
 The β -oxidation of fatty acids involves three
stages
I. Activation of fatty acids occurring in the
cytosol
II. Transport of fatty acids into mitochondria
III. E-Oxidation proper in the mitochondrial
matrix.
 BIOSYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS
 De novo (new) synthesis of fatty acids occurs
predominantly in liver, kidney, adipose tissue
and lactating mammary glands.
 The enzyme machinery for fatty acid production is located in
the cytosomal fraction of the cell. Acetyl CoA is the source
of carbon atoms while NADPH
provides the reducing equivalents and ATP
supplies energy for fatty acid formation. The fatty
acid synthesis may be learnt in 3 stages

I. Production of acetyl CoA and NADPH

II. Conversion of acetyl CoA to malonyl CoA
III. Reactions of fatty acid synthase complex.