RUCE – B.

Tech – III Sem – RU20 – Manufacturing Processes – Lecture Notes UNIT-I

UNIT – I

Introduction: Importance and selection of manufacturing processes.

Casting Processes: Introduction to casting process, process steps; pattern: types, materials and allowance; Cores:
Types of cores, core prints, principles and design of gating system; Solidification of casting: Concept, solidification
of pure metal and alloy; Special casting processes: Shell casting, investment casting, die casting, centrifugal
casting, casting defects and remedies.

Learning Outcomes: After completing this unit, the student will be able to:
 Selection of suitable manufacturing process for a given product. (L3)
 Understand the steps involved in metal casting, pattern making. (L2)
 Apply the knowledge of designing gating systems, risers. (L3)
 Compare the working of various metal casting processes. (L4)
 Identify the various casting defects. (L3)

INTRODUCTION

1.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES - AN INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing is an activity of making goods and articles by hand or machines at competitive
price. The manufacturing also involves assembly of parts to make products. The quantity of articles
made by hand in a given time is limited i.e., productivity of such activities (manual production) is
smaller than the production carried out by machines.
Transformation of raw material into finished product can be carried out by different processes.
All the manufacturing processes can be grouped into two main categories.
1. Primary manufacturing processes, and 2. Secondary manufacturing processes.
 Primary manufacturing processes are involved in changing the initial material into semi-
finished products, which are further processed to get final products with required size and
shape. However, in certain cases, parts produced by primary processes need not require further
processing, and can be used as final product. Examples: Casting, rolling, forging and
extrusion.
 Secondary manufacturing processes are intended to obtain final products with accurate size,
shape and desired surface finish. These processes take the products of primary processes and
convert them into usable products with required specifications. All machining processes and
few forming processes (coining, drawing, sheet forming etc.) are examples of secondary
manufacturing processes.
1.2 TYPES OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:
The primary object of manufacturing is to produce a component having desired geometry, size
and finish. The manufacturing processes (primary and secondary processes) can be classified as:
i) Casting (solidification process) - starting material is liquid.
ii) Metal forming or metal working processes - starting material is solid which has sufficient
plasticity.
iii) Machining or metal cutting - starting material is a solid from which extra material is
removed.
iv) Powder metallurgy or particulate process - starting material is a powder. Powder is
compacted into desired shape and heated (sintered).
v) Joining and assembly processes - Joining two or more parts in order to create new product.
vi) Surface treatment processes - intended to remove dirt, oil and other contaminants from
surface.

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Certain processes such as heat treatment or sintering are intended to improve the properties of
work materials. These processes do not alter the shape of the products.
1.2.1 Casting: Casting is defined as the shaping of a material from the liquid state in a prepared cavity,
called mould. Casting or moulding processes are widely used to produce parts that often require
machining. Casting uses molten metal and cavity. It involves:
a) Making the pattern
b) Preparation of mould (cavity formed by the pattern)
c) Pouring the molten metal into the mould
The metal retains the desired shape of the mould after solidification. The component is then
removed from the mould, cleaned and machined if necessary.
An important advantage of casting is that the material can be converted into a desired shape in
a single step, and in most cases, the scrap material can be easily recycled.
1.2.2 Metal Forming: In metal forming the material is shaped by plastic deformation with the aid of
external pressure and heat. The basic purpose of forming is to modify the shape and size or
properties of the material. Parts made by forming often require machining to achieve accurate size
and shape.
Metal forming processes may be further classified into two types:
(a) Hot working (b) Cold working
In hot working the metal is shaped at a temperature
greater than recrystallisation temperature. Example:
Forging, hot rolling, hot extrusion etc.
In cold working the metal is shaped at a temperature
less than recrystallisation temperature. Most of the cold
working processes are carried at room temperature.
Example: Cold drawing, bending, squeezing etc.
1.2.3 Metal Cutting: Metal cutting or machining refers to the
processes in which excess material is removed from stock
(work piece) by a cutting tool in the form of chips. These
chips are formed by interaction of cutting tool with the material being machined. Fig. 1.1 shows a
chip formed by a cutting tool. Metal cutting or machining is the means of producing a prescribed
surface finish, accurate size and shape.
The basic machining processes
are turning, shaping, drilling,
milling, sawing, broaching and
grinding.
1.2.4 Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy is the
process of making a component
from metal powders by pressing and
sintering. The process involves:
a) Production and mixing of
powders
b) Pressing the powders in a die
c) Sintering (heating) the resulting
compact in a furnace, and
d) Sizing and finishing if required

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The process of powder metallurgy is suitable to the mass production of small, intricate parts of
high precision, often eliminating the need of finishing or machining. There is little waste of
material and controlled degree of porosity can be achieved.
The simplified flowchart of the powder metallurgy process is illustrated in Fig. 1.2.
1.2.5 Joining and Assembly Processes :
These processes are generally used for fabrication work and for joining metal parts. A large
number of processes are grouped under joining processes, which include the following:
1) Mechanical fastening (riveting)
2) Soldering, brazing and welding,
3) Assembly processes
1.2.6 Surface Treatment Processes
These processes are employed for cleaning, providing protective or decorative surfaces on
work pieces. Surface treatment processes include the following processes.
1) Chemical and mechanical cleaning
2) Painting
3) Plating
4) Galvanising, and
5) Anodising
Heat treatment is another
process in which controlled
heating and cooling of metal is
involved for specific purpose of
altering its structure and
properties.
Fig. 1.3 shows alternate routes
of manufacturing processes for
converting raw materials into
finished products.
1.3 IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Manufacturing is a series of complex interaction between materials, machines, energy and
people. It begins with creation of individual parts that will finally assembled to produce final
product.
Economic development of the country depends on the materials resources and the skill and
energies expend in utilising these resources. It is also essential that manufacturing should also be
competitive on a global basis. Manufacturing productivity is a prime factor of economic
development, and nations falling behind in this respect find their living standards gradually
eroding. Its importance in the society in general and engineering in particular is self evident. Every
method of production uses its own basic principles for imparting desired shape, accuracy and
surface finish. Engineers who design machines and other equipments should be sufficiently
familiar with appropriate manufacturing process so as to design a component which can be easily
and economically manufactured.
1.4 SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:
The aim of manufacturing is creating a usable end product at competitive price. In order to
achieve this, a production engineer should know the available materials and production techniques.
He must be able to select the most economical method of manufacturing.
There are many factors involved in selection of appropriate manufacturing process. However,
the selection is usually made on the basis of the following considerations:

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i) Materials to be used
ii) Shape and size of the components
iii) Accuracy and surface finish
iv) Volume of production
v) Economy

Fig 1.4: Schematic flow chart of the procedure for process selection
Type of materials dictate the choice of manufacturing processes; Hard and brittle materials cannot
be plastically deformed, and these materials can be cast or machined by various techniques. Shape
and size of the components are also important factors ; Normally more complicated shapes should
be cast, whereas simple shapes may be welded or forged. Machining or other finishing processes
(grinding, lapping etc.) are used where the accuracy and surface finish are the prime
considerations.
The final choice of manufacturing will be dictated by economics, which is directly related to
the volume of production. In large volume of production, the cost per piece is reduced
considerably. In such cases, it will be economical to select special purpose machines. They will
provide increased productivity and are capable of meeting the delivery date.
1.5 INTRODUCTION TO CASTING PROCESSES
Metal-casting processes are the primary manufacturing processes that are used to make
complex parts utilizing liquid metal.
1.5.1 Definition
Casting is defined as the shaping of a material in liquid state. Casting or founding is one of the
oldest and cheapest metal shaping methods of producing parts of desired shape, by pouring liquid
molten metal into a refractory mould (usually made of sand) with a cavity of the shape to be made,
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and allowing it to solidify. After complete solidification, the part (desired metal object) is taken out
from the refractory mould either by breaking the mould or separating the two parts of a mould. The
part (solidified object) obtained is called casting.
1.5.2 Advantages and Limitations
Casting is the shortest route of obtaining finished parts (castings) from raw material (molten
metal). It allows a great deal of versatility in part size and shape, and is preferred over other
manufacturing processes because of the following advantages.
a) Parts of any size (from small to very large) and weight, from few grams to even up to 200 tons
can be made.
b) Molten material flows into any small section in the mould cavity and as such, any intricate
shapes, components with cavities internal or external can be made with accuracy and good
surface finish.
c) Any material, be it ferrous or nonferrous can be cast practically.
d) The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result,
for trial production or production of a small lot it is an ideal method.
e) It is possible in the casting process to place the amount of material, where it is exactly required.
As a result, weight reduction in design can be achieved.
f) Castings are generally cooled uniformly from all sides and, therefore, they are expected to have
no directional properties.
g) There are certain metals and alloys (Ex: Gray Cast Iron), which can only be processed by
casting and not by any other process like forging, because of the metallurgical considerations.
h) Metal casting can be adapted for job work as well as for mass production.
i) Castings, in general, resists creep under high temperature.
However, the major limitations of casting are
a) The process is not suitable for the metals having high melting point and low fluidity.
b) Castings do not exhibit directionality of properties. The strength and toughness of castings are
usually inferior to forgings.
c) The dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by the normal sand casting process would
not be adequate for final application in many cases. To take these cases into consideration, some
special casting processes such as die casting have been developed.
d) The sand casting process is labour intensive to some extent and, therefore, many improvements
are aimed at it, such as machine moulding and foundry mechanization.
e) With some materials, it is often difficult to remove defects arising out of the moisture present in
sand castings.
1.5.3 Applications
Casting processes enable to obtain parts of intricate shape. Typical applications of the sand
casting process are: cylinder blocks, liners, machine-tool beds and frames, pistons, piston rings,
mill rolls, wheels, housings, water-supply pipes, sewage-pipes and bells.
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING PROCESSES
Metal casting processes are classified, according to the type of mould used, into two types.
a) Expendable mould casting - Sand casting, shell moulding, and investment casting
b) Permanent mould casting - Gravity die casting, pressure die casting, and centrifugal casting.

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Expendable moulds are made of sand, plaster,

ceramics and similar materials which are generally mixed
with various binders. After the casting has solidified, the
mould in these processes are broken up to remove the
casting. Sand casting is the most important example of the
expendable mould processes. In sand casting, the liquid
metal is poured into a mould made of sand. After the
solidification, the mould is destroyed in order to get the Fig. 1.4 Sand Mould
casting. The various features of sand casting are illustrated in Fig. 1.4.
In permanent mould castings, moulds are used repeatedly to produce many castings. They are
designed in such a way that the casting can be
easily removed and the mould used for the
next casting. These moulds are made of metals
to maintain their strength at high temperature
i.e., heat resisting materials. Die casting is the
most familiar process of permanent mould
casting. The features of cold-chamber die Fig. 1.5 Cold Chamber Die Casting
casting are illustrated in Fig. 1.5.
More intricate and large size castings are generally possible with the expendable (sand) mould
casting. Parts made in permanent mould casting are limited in size. But high production rate with
good dimensional accuracy and surface finish is possible with permanent mould casting.
1.7 TERMINOLOGY USED IN CASTING (Fig. 1.6):
a) Flask: A moulding flask is one, which holds the sand mould intact. Depending upon the
position of the flask in the mould structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag, cope
and cheek. It is made up of wood for temporary applications or more generally of metal for
long-term use.
b) Drag: Lower-moulding flask.
c) Cope: Upper-moulding flask.
d) Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three-piece moulding.
e) Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications. The mould
cavity is made with the help of the pattern.
f) Parting Line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the sand
mould. In split pattern, it is also the dividing line between the two halves of the pattern.
g) Bottom Board: This is a board normally made of wood, which is used at the start of the mould
making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand is sprinkled on it, and then the
ramming is done in the drag.
h) Facing Sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
moulding cavity to give better surface finish to the castings.
i) Moulding Sand: It is the freshly prepared refractory material used for making the mould
cavity. It is a mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions to get the desired
results and it surrounds the pattern while making the mould.
j) Backing Sand: It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould. This is
made up of used and burnt sand.
k) Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
l) Pouring Basin: A small funnel-shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured.

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m) Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal

from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity. In
many cases, it controls the flow of metal into the
mould.
n) Runner: The passageways in the parting plane
through which molten metal flow is regulated before
they reach the mould cavity.
o) Gate: The actual entry point through which molten
metal enters the mould cavity.
p) Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside
the mould cavity to take care of its own weight and Fig. 1.6 Cross section of a sand mould
overcome the metallostatic forces.
q) Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of
castings, to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
r) Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting, so that hot metal can flow back
into the mould cavity, when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to solidification.
1.8 STEPS INVOLVED IN CASTING
Sand casting is a very old technique but with improved methods it can still compete with other
production processes. Roughly 75% of the total output of the castings are made in sand moulding
though they do not fully satisfy the required surface finish and accuracy.
The sequence of steps involved in sand casting are:
 Making a pattern of the part with all details.
 Making a mould by packing the sand around the pattern, and then removing the pattern to leave
a cavity (mould).
 Inserting cores if required.
 Melting and pouring the molten metal into the mould. After solidification casting is removed
from the mould.
 Fettling and inspection of the casting.
 Further processing (machining and finishing) if required.
1.8.1 Sand-Mould-Making Procedure
The procedure for making a typical sand mould is described in the following steps.
First, a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or on the floor, making the
surface even. The drag-moulding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the
drag part of the pattern at the centre of the flask on the board. There should be enough clearance
between the pattern and the walls of the flask, which should be of the order of 50 to 100 mm. The
parting powder is dusted on pattern surface. Dry-facing sand is sprinkled (riddled) over the board
and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer. Freshly prepared moulding sand of requisite quality is
now poured into the drag and on the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm. Rest of the drag flask is
completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed to compact the sand. The ramming
of the sand should be done properly, so as not to compact it too hard, which makes the escape of
gases difficult, nor too loose, so that mould would not have enough strength. After the ramming is
over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scrapped (cut-off) using a flat (strike-off) bar to the
level of the flask edges.

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Now, with a vent wire, which is a

wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a
pointed end, vent holes are made in the
drag to the full depth of the flask as well
as to the pattern to facilitate the removal
of gases during casting solidification.
This completes the preparation of the
drag.
The finished drag flask is now rolled
over exposing the pattern as shown in
Fig.(c) and the dry parting sand
sprinkled all over the drag and on the
pattern. This prevent the sand in cope
adhering to that in the drag, so that two
halves of the mould may be easily
separated for removing the pattern.
Using a slick, the edges of sand around
(c)
the pattern are repaired, and cope-part
(half) of the pattern is placed over the
drag pattern, aligning it with the help of
dowel pins. The cope flask on top of the
drag is located aligning again with the
help of the pins.
A sprue pin for making the sprue
passage is located at a small distance of
about 50 mm from the pattern. Also, a
riser pin, if required, is kept at an
appropriate place and freshly prepared
moulding sand similar to that of the drag
along with the backing sand is sprinkled.
The sand is thoroughly rammed, excess
sand is cut-off to a level of the box and
vent holes are made all over in the cope Fig. 1.7 Sand-mould-making procedure
as in the drag.
The sprue pin and the riser pin are carefully withdrawn from the flask. Later, the pouring basin
is cut near the top of the sprue. The cope is separated from the drag and any loose sand on the
cope-and-drag interface of the drag is blown off with the help of bellows. Now the cope and the
drag-pattern halves are withdrawn by using the draw spikes and wrapping the pattern all around to
slightly enlarge the mould cavity, so that the mould walls are not spoiled by the withdrawing
pattern. The runners and the gates are cut in the mould carefully without spoiling the mould. Any
excess or loose sand found in the runners and mould cavity is blown away using the bellows. Now
the facing sand in the form of a paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners, which
would give the finished casting a good surface finish.

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A dry sand core is prepared using a core box. After

suitable baking, it is placed in the mould cavity as shown in
Figure 1.7. The cope is again placed on the drag taking care of
the alignment of the two by means of the pins. A suitable
weight is kept on the cope to take care of the upward
metallostatic force during the pouring of molten metal. The
mould now, as shown in Fig. 1.7 (e), is ready for pouring.
1.8.2 Moulding a split pattern
The moulding procedure using a split pattern is described
below.
 Place the half pattern (drag pattern) of split pattern in
position over the moulding board. Place the drag over the
pattern. (c) Pattern Drawn from the Drag
 Dust parting sand over the pattern and moulding board and
riddle fine moulding sand over the pattern to a depth of
about 25 mm. Fill the drag with tempered sand and ram
the sand firmly around the pattern using hand rammer. (d) Pattern Drawn from the Cope
and Sprue and Riser Formed
Strike off the excess sand with the strike off bar (Fig. 1.8
(a)).
 Roll over the drag so that pins point upwards and pattern
surface is exposed. Place the top half of the pattern (cope
pattern) in position. See that the dowel pins and holes are
clean and aligned properly (Fig. 1.8(b)).
 Dust parting sand over the pattern and parting surface of (e) Mould Assembled Gates and
Pouring Basin Prepared Mould is
the mould. Ready for Pouring Molten Metal
 Place the cope on the drag. Fill the cope with moulding Fig. 1.8 Moulding a Split Pattern
sand, keeping the sprue pin and riser pin in position. Ram the sand around the pattern and vent
the mould.
 Remove the sprue and riser pins, lift the cope from the drag and place it horizontally.
 Apply the water to the edges of mould in cope and drag with bulb swab.
 Rap and withdraw each half of the pattern from cope and drag.
 Cut the gates in the drag with the gate cutter.
 Assemble the mould and cut a pouring basin as shown in Fig. 1.8 (e). The mould is now ready
to be poured.
1.8.3 Moulding with Three - Parts Flask
Moulding in three - sections flask (cope, cheek and drag) is performed in the same manner as in
two - section flask. The procedure for making the mould with three-sections flask is briefly
described below.
Moulding begins with preparation of
drag. After ramming, the drag is inverted.
Then the middle portion of the pattern is
fixed to the drag pattern. A cheek (middle
section of flask) is now placed on the top
of the drag, filled with sand and rammed
keeping the sprue and riser pins in
position. Next top part of the pattern is
setup in position, the cope is placed on the Fig. 1.9 Moulding with Three-Parts Flask

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cheek and filled in with sand and rammed as usual. The sections of flask are taken apart to remove
the pattern and insert the core if necessary. After cutting the gates, the mould is assembled. The
mould is now ready for pouring molten metal. Fig. 1.9 shows a section of mould with three parts
flask.
1.8.4 Sand Casting - Advantages and Limitations
Advantages Limitations
- Parts with any shape and complexity can be - Not suitable for thin sections, below 3
made. mm.
- Parts can be made in a short period of time, - Machining is required to meet
because, no complicated tools or dies are specified finish and dimensional
required tolerances.
- Suitable for wide range of metals. - Rate of production is low.
1.9 PATTERNS
A pattern is a replica or full size model of the object to be made by the casting process, with
some modifications. The main modifications are:
(a) the addition of pattern allowances,
(b) the provision of core prints, and
(c) the elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained by casting and hence, are to be
obtained by further processing.
It gives its shape to the mould cavity, where the molten metal solidifies to the desired form and
size. Pattern should be simple in design for ease of manufacture and enable to draw easily from the
sand. Pattern should retain its dimensions during the service period.
1.9.1 Types of Patterns
The patterns which create the mould cavity are broadly classified into two basic types:
1. Permanent (reusable) patterns 2. Disposable (expendable) patterns.
 Permanent or removable patterns are generally made up of wood or metal depending on the
requirement of castings. For sand moulding, the sand is packed around the pattern, and mould
cavity is created by removing the pattern from the sand. The pattern can be reused repeatedly.
 Disposable or expendable pattern is made up of polystyrene, and is used in full - mould
process. The pattern material is vaporised by hot metal when it is poured in through the sprue.
The gases caused by vaporisation of pattern material are driven out through the permeable sand
and vent holes. For investment casting the wax or plastic pattern is used. The pattern-mould
assembly is heated in an oven. The pattern material melts away creating cavity having full
details of the pattern.
There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the number of
castings required and the moulding-procedure adopted.
1.9.2 Types of Removable patterns:
The type of pattern used depends upon the design of casting, complexity of shape, the number of
castings required, moulding process, surface finish and accuracy.
The following types of patterns are in common use.
1. Solid (single piece) pattern 7. Segmental pattern
2. Split (Two Piece) pattern 8. Follow board pattern
3. Gated pattern 9. Shell pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern 10. Special patterns
5. Match plate pattern (i) Sweep pattern
6. Loose piece pattern (ii) Skeleton pattern

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1.9.2.1 Solid (Single-Piece) Pattern: Solid or single piece patterns are inexpensive and the simplest
type of patterns. As the name indicates, they are made of a single piece as shown in Fig. 1.10.
This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very
simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. These
patterns are best suited for limited production. It is also used
for applications in very small-scale productions or in
Casting Pattern
prototype development.
In a simple solid pattern, one of the surfaces is expected to
be flat which is used as the parting plane. If no such flat
surface exists, the moulding may become complicated with
the necessity of a follow board. This pattern (the mould Fig. 1.10 Single-piece pattern
cavity) will be entirely in the drag, and requires the more number of manual operations such as
cutting the gating system and repairing of the mould. The shape of solid pattern is exactly same
as that of casting.
1.9.2.2 Split Pattern or Two-Piece Pattern: Split pattern is most widely used for intricate castings or
castings of unusual shapes.
When the contour of the casting
makes its withdrawal from the
mould difficult, or when the depth of
the casting is too high then the
pattern is split into two parts, so that
one part is in the drag and the other
in the cope. The two halves of the Fig. 1.11 Split pattern & Multi-Piece Pattern
pattern should be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which are fitted to the cope
half. These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern and
thus align the two halves properly as seen in Fig. 1.11. The split is usually arranged along the
parting line to draw the pattern easily out of the mould before pouring of molten metal. Pattern
with three or more parts is used for more complex castings. This type of pattern is known as
multi - piece pattern. It requires moulding box with three parts. The middle one is called
Cheek.
1.9.2.3 Gated Pattern: This is an improvement over the
simple pattern, where the gating and runner system are
integral with the pattern. The use of gated pattern
eliminates the time required to cut the gating system by
hand. Thus, the moulding time greatly reduced and
help in improving the productivity of a moulder. These
are suitable for small castings in mass production and
on moulding machines. Fig. 1.12 Gated Pattern
1.9.2.4 Cope and Drag Pattern: These are similar to split patterns. In addition to splitting the pattern,
the cope and drag halves of the pattern along with the gating and risering systems are attached
separately to the metal or wooden plates along with the alignment pins (Fig. 1.13). They are
called the cope- and-drag patterns. (In this case cope and drag parts of the moulds are made
separately, and then assembled to form the complete mould. They are used for very large
castings).
The cope-and-drag moulds may be produced using these patterns separately by two moulders
but they can be assembled to form a complete mould. These types of patterns are used for
castings, which are heavy and inconvenient for handling as also for continuous production.

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1.9.2.5 Match plate pattern: These are extensions of

the cope-and-drag patterns. Here, the cope-and-
drag patterns along with the gating and the
risering are mounted on a single matching metal
or wooden plate on either side, as shown in Fig.
1.14. i.e., pattern in two halves is attached on
opposite side of wooden or metal plate (match
plate). On one side of the match plate, the cope
flask is prepared, and on the other, the drag
flask. After moulding when the match plate is
removed, a complete mould with gating is
obtained by joining the cope and the drag
Fig. 1.13 Cope-and-drag pattern
together.

Fig. 1.14 Match-plate pattern (Courtesy J S Campbell,

“Principle of Manufacturing Materials and Processes”, Mc Graw-Hill, New York pp. 153)
The complete pattern with match plate is entirely made of metal, usually aluminium, for its
light weight and machinability. But when dimensions are critical, the match plate may be made
of steel with necessary case hardening of the critical wear points. The pattern and gating are
either screwed to the match plate in the case of a flat parting plane, or are made integral in case
of an irregular parting plane. The casting of a match-plate pattern is done usually in plaster
moulds, but sometimes sand moulds are also used. When the cope and the drag patterns are
similar, the pattern may be kept only on one side of the plate and is used for making both the
drag as well as the cope.
Match plate patterns are generally used in machine moulding as well as for producing large
number of small castings by hand moulding. Production efficiency and dimensional accuracy of
castings can be greatly improved by the use of these patterns. The gating system is already made
and attached to the match plate. Several patterns for small castings (need not be same) can be
mounted on one match plate. These patterns are used for machine moulding. They are expensive,
but since they increase productivity, the additional cost is justified.
1.9.2.6 Loose-Piece Pattern: Loose piece pattern is used to produce the castings having projections in
the contour. Such design makes impossible to withdraw the pattern from the mould. Hence,
during moulding, it is necessary to make such obstructing part of the contour or projection in
loose piece and fastened to main pattern by means of anchor pin or a wire. During the moulding
the anchor pin is removed keeping loose piece in place. After completing the mould, first the
main pattern is removed and then the loose pieces are removed with the help of pointed lifter
through the gap generated by the main pattern (Fig. 1.15). Moulding with loose pieces is a highly
skilled job and is generally expensive and, therefore, should be avoided where possible.

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Fig. 1.15 Loose-piece pattern

1.9.2.7 Segmental Pattern: As the name indicates, these patterns are in the form of segment and used
for moulding parts having circular sections such as rings, wheel rims and gears. This pattern
revolves about centre and after ramming one section, it moves forward to another section to
complete the mould.
These patterns are used
for preparing moulds of large
circular castings, avoiding the
use of a solid pattern of the
exact size. In principle they
work like a sweep, but the
difference is that a sweep is
given a continuous revolving Fig. 1.16 A segment pattern.
motion to generate the desired shape, whereas a segmental pattern is a portion of the solid pattern
itself and the mould is prepared in parts by it. It is mounted on a central pivot and after preparing
the part mould in one position, the segment is moved to the next position. The operation is
repeated till the complete mould is ready. A typical example is shown in Fig. 1.16.
1.9.2.8 Follow-Board Pattern: It is used for making thin walled
castings. Ramming of thin walled pattern may present
problems such as sagging, breakage of pattern etc. It is
therefore necessary to support pattern. Hence, the bottom
board is modified as a follow board to closely fit the
contour of the weak pattern and thus support it during the
ramming of the drag. Follow board is removed after
ramming drag; The drag is inverted and then the cope part
is rammed. During the preparation of the cope, no follow
board is necessary because the sand that is already
compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern. An
example is shown in Fig. 1.17.
Fig. 1.17 Follow board pattern
1.9.2.9 Shell Pattern (Fig. 1.18): It is a hollow construction and
its outside shape is used as pattern while inside is used as core box for making cores. The pattern
is made in two halves and are accurately doweled together along parting
line. It is mostly used for drainage fittings and pipe work.
1.9.2.10 Special Patterns: Special patterns are used for large size castings when
required in small quantity. These patterns are ideal when accurate
dimensions of castings are not essential and casting shapes are not
convenient to produce by regular solid patterns. Special patterns such as
sweep pattern and skeleton pattern are described below.
Fig. 1.18 Shell Pattern
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1.9.2.11 Sweep Pattern: It is not a true pattern, but a template made of wood or metal revolving around
a fixed axis in the mould and shapes the sand to the desired contour. This eliminates the need for
a large three-dimensional pattern. It is suitable for generating large shapes, which are axi-
symmetrical or prismatic in nature, for producing simple symmetrical castings such as wheels,
rims and bell or shapes. Moulding with sweep pattern is shown in Fig. 1.19. After forming the
mould, the sweep (template) and the spindle about which it rotates are removed before pouring
molten metal. In this case no importance is given to accuracy and smoothness of the casting.
Usage of sweep pattern greatly reduces the cost of a three dimensional pattern. This type of
pattern is particularly suitable for very large castings such as the bells for ornamental purposes
used, which are generally cast in pit moulds.

Fig. 1.19 Sweep pattern

Fig. 1.20 Skeleton pattern

1.9.2.12 Skeleton Pattern: A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood (a simple wooden frame
outlining the shape of casting) is used for building the final pattern by packing loam sand around
the skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is obtained with the help of a strickle as
shown in Fig. 1.20. The type of skeleton to be made is dependent upon the geometry of the
workpiece. This type of pattern is useful generally for very large castings in small quantities and
do not require accurate dimensions, where large expense on the complete wooden pattern is not
justified. It is suitable for castings having simple geometrical shapes such as machine frames,
pipe fittings and housings.
1.9.3 PATTERN MATERIALS:
The main purpose of pattern is to form a cavity of desired size and shape in the moulding
sand. Pattern also produces seats for cores, and establishes parting surfaces in the mould. The
basic requirements of pattern materials are:
(i) Should be easily workable.
(ii) Should be durable in order to make many moulds.
(iii)Should maintain dimensional accuracy during its service life.
(iv) Should be light in weight and convenient to handle.
(v) Should be cheap and readily available.
Patterns are produced in a variety of materials, and their selection depends on the following
factors.
(i) Production quantity (ii) Dimensional accuracy required

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(iii) Moulding process used (iv) Size and shape of the castings.
The usual pattern materials are wood, metal and plastics. Wooden patterns are preferred for
small production of large castings whereas metal patterns are preferred for mass production of
small castings. Metal patterns are durable and provide good surface finish than wooden patterns,
but they are costlier. The characteristics of common pattern materials are discussed below:
1.9.3.1 Wood: The most commonly used material for the construction of patterns is wood, the main
reason being the easy availability and the low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is
relatively cheap and can be preserved its surface by shellac coating.
The main disadvantage of wood is that it is susceptible to shrinkage (when dry) or swelling
(when wet) caused by change in the moisture content in the atmosphere, as a result distortions
and dimensional changes may occur. A good construction may be able to reduce the warpage to
some extent. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for large-
scale use of wood as a pattern material. Also, the wooden pattern wears out quickly.
The wood used for making patterns must be free from knots and other common defects.
Patterns can also be made from compressed wood laminates, which are strong, tough and have
high resistance to abrasion and moisture.
The usual varieties of wood commonly used for making patterns are Pine wood, Mahogany,
Teak wood, Walnut and Deodar. Besides the wood, the plywood boards of the veneer type as
well as the particle boards are also used for making patterns. Because of their availability in
various thicknesses, their higher strength and no need for seasoning are the reasons for their
usage. However, they can be used only in patterns, which are of flat type (pattern plates) and no
three-dimensional contours.
Choice of the pattern material depends essentially on the size of the casting, the number of
castings to be made from the pattern, and the dimensional accuracy required. For very large
castings, wood may be the only practical pattern material. Moulding sand being highly abrasive
for large-scale production, wood may not be suitable as a pattern material and one may have to
opt for metal patterns.
1.9.3.2 Metal: To produce metal patterns a special wooden pattern (master pattern) is required, which
necessitates the use of a double-contraction allowances. Metal patterns are extensively used for
large-scale (mass) production of castings and for closer dimensional tolerances.
Compared to wooden patterns, metal patterns offer the following advantages:
 Durable, and improved or smooth surface finish
 High strength, and do not deform in storage.
 Wear resistance and maintains dimensional stability.
 Greater resistance to abrasion in mould.
 Greater stability under changing atmosphere.
However, metal patterns have the following disadvantages:
 Much heavier.
 More difficult to repair and modify.
 Poor resistance to corrosion.,
Metal patterns are generally made from steel, cast iron, aluminium, brass, etc. Characteristics of
these metals are discussed below.
(a) Steel : It possesses excellent wear resistance and strength. However, it has poor resistance to
corrosion. These patterns can be easily repaired, and are best suited for mass production.
(b) Cast iron : Cast iron is used for large size castings and requires dry storage area to protect
from rust.
The advantages of cast iron are:

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- Strong and gives a good smooth mould surface.

- Cheap and easy to repair.
- Good resistance to abrasion.
The main disadvantages of cast iron are
- Patterns are heavy, and are brittle (i.e., easily broken)
- Poor corrosion resistance
(c) Aluminium: Aluminium is the most commonly used metal for patterns. It offers the
following advantages.
- Low melting point.
- Soft and easy to shape.
- Resist corrosion.
- Patterns are light with good strength and wear resistance.
The disadvantages of aluminium patterns:
- Aluminium, being rather soft, is subject to damage from rough use.
- Poor repairability.
- Rate of shrinkage is high.
(d) Brass: Brass is extensively used for making small size patterns. The main advantages of
brass are:
- Stronger than aluminium and can withstand rough usage in moulding.
- Takes better surface finish.
- Repairs can readily be made with soft solders.
- Patterns are able to withstand the wear of the moulding sand.
The disadvantages of brass patters are:
- Heavier than cast iron.
- Expensive than other metals.
Though many materials such as steel, cast iron, brass, etc. can be used as pattern materials,
Aluminium and White metal are most commonly used. These are light, can be easily worked, and
are corrosion resistant. Since, white metal has very small shrinkage, the white-metal pattern
can he made use of for making additional patterns without worrying about the double
shrinkage allowances. Most metal patterns are cast in sand moulds from a master wood pattern
provided with the double shrinkage allowance. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of
various pattern materials are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Comparative characteristics of metallic-pattern materials
Pattern Metal Advantages Disadvantages
Aluminium Good machinability, High corrosion resistance Low strength, high cost
Alloys Low density Good surface finish
Grey cast iron Good machinability, High strength, low cost Corrosion Prone, High
Density
Steel Good surface finish, High strength Corrosion prone, High
density
Brass and Good surface finish, High strength High cost, High density
Bronze High Corrosion resistance
Lead alloys Good Machinability High cost, High density
Low strength
1.9.3.3 Plastics: Plastics have replaced other materials in numerous products. Plastics are used as
modern pattern materials, because of their low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces and

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durability. They do not absorb moisture and are, therefore, dimensionally stable and can be
cleaned easily.
The type of plastics used for patterns must be very strong and highly resistance to wear.
Thermo setting resins (phenolic resin, epoxy resins) have the desired qualities of a pattern
materials.
The making of a plastic pattern can be done in sand-clay moulds or moulds made of plaster of
Paris. The most generally used plastics are cold-setting epoxy resins with suitable fillers. With a
proper combination, it is possible to obtain no-shrink plastic material. In such a case, double-
shrinkage allowances may not be required. However, they are not economical for small
production runs.
The advantages of plastic patterns are :
- Produced more cheaply than metal patterns.
- High strength and light weight.
- Good dimensional stability.
- Resistance to corrosion.
- Ease of repair and modification.
Polyurethane foam is also used as pattern material. It is very light and can be easily formed
into any shape required. It can be used for light-duty work for a small number of castings for the
conventional casting and for single casting in the case of full-mould process, where the pattern is
burned inside the mould without withdrawing. This plastic has very low ash content and can be
burnt inside the mould.
Other materials such as plasters (plaster of paris or gypsum cement) and wax are used for
patterns.
 Plaster is brittle and not suitable for moulding large number of sand castings. It is used only
for making small patterns and core boxes of intricate shapes.
 Wax patterns are used in investment casting. They provide high degree of surface finish and
dimensional accuracy to castings.
Table 1.2 Characteristics of Pattern Materials
Characteristics () Resistance to
Machinability Strength Weight
Materials () Wear Corrosion Swelling
Wood Excellent Fair Excellent Poor Excellent Poor
Aluminium Good Good Good Good Excellent Excellent
Steel Fair Excellent Poor Excellent Poor Excellent
Cast iron Good Good Poor Excellent Poor Excellent
Plastics Good Good Good Fair Excellent Excellent
The pattern material is to be chosen based on the expected life of the pattern. Table 1.3 gives
comparative values of pattern material choices.
Table 1.3 Pattern materials based on expected life
Number of castings produced before pattern equipment repair
Pattern Material
Pattern Core
Small castings (under 600 mm)
2000 2000 Hard wood
6000 6000 Aluminium, plastic
100000 100000 Cast iron
Medium castings (600- 1800 mm)
1000 750 Hard wood
3000 3000 Aluminium, Plastic

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Large castings (above 1800 mm)

200 150 Softwood
500 500 Hard wood metal reinforced
1.9.4 PATTERN ALLOWANCES
The dimensions of the pattern are different from the final dimensions of the casting required.
To produce the casting of desired size and shape, its pattern must be provided with the following
allowances.
(i) Shrinkage allowance
(ii) Machining or finishing allowances
(iii)Taper or draft allowances
(iv) Distortion allowances
(v) Shake or rapping allowance
A pattern differs from the castings in the following manner:
- It is made in larger size than casting to compensate for shrinkage and machining
allowances.
- Taper is provided on vertical sides (draft) to enable to draw from the sand without
damaging the mould.
- It incorporates projections (core prints) to provide recesses in the mould (core seats).
1.9.4.1 Shrinkage allowance: All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps bismuth. This is because
of the inter-atomic vibrations which are amplified by an increase in temperature. However, there
is a distinction to be made between liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage.
(a) Liquid shrinkage, refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid to
solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this, risers are provided in the moulds.
(b) Solid shrinkage, is the reduction in volume caused, when metal loses temperature in solid
state. The shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of this reduction.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example, steel
contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminium. The shrinkage also depends upon the
metallurgical transformation taking place during the solidification. For example, white cast iron
shrinks by about 21.0 mm/m during casting. However, when annealed, it grows by about 10.5
mm/m, resulting in a net shrinkage of 10.5 mm/m. Similarly, in grey cast iron and spheroidal
graphite iron, the amount of graphitisation controls the actual shrinkage. When graphitisation is
more, the shrinkage would be less and vice versa.
The pattern must be made oversize to compensate for contraction of solid metal on cooling
(solid shrinkage). This addition to the dimension of the pattern is known as shrinkage allowance.
Although contraction is volumetrical, the correction for it is usually expressed linearly as a ratio,
a percentage or in mm per meter. Reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid to
solid state at solidus temperature (liquid shrinkage) is compensated by providing riser.
Pattern makers use special measuring rule (shrinkage rule) that takes account of different
contraction that occurs when casting various metals. The rule has slightly larger divisions so that
it measures over size, and when the patterns are used they produce castings of the correct size.
Different shrink rules are used for different casting materials. Shrinkage is generally greater for
cast steel than for other alloys. Shrinkage allowances for different casting alloys are given in
Table 1.4
Table 1.4 Shrinkage allowances for various metals and alloys
Metals and Alloy Pattern dimension Section thickness Shrinkage allowance
Material (mm/m) (mm) (mm) (mm/m)

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up to 600 -- 10.5
Grey cast iron 600 to 1200 -- 8.5
Over 1200 -- 7.0
White cast iron -- -- 16.0 to 23.0
Ductile iron -- -- 8.3 to 10.4
6 11.8
9 10.5
12 9.2
Malleable iron -- 15 7.9
18 6.6
22 4.0
25 2.6
up to 600 -- 21.0
Plain-carbon steel 600 to 1800 -- 16.0
Over 1800 -- 13.0
Chromium steel -- -- 20.0
Manganese steel -- -- 25.0 to 38.0
Aluminium -- -- 13.0
Aluminium Bronze -- -- 20.0 to 23.0
Copper -- -- 16.0
Brass -- -- 15.5
Bronze -- -- 15.5 to 22.0
Gunmetal -- -- 10.0 to 16.0
Manganese bronze -- -- 15.6
Silicon bronze -- -- 10.4
Tin bronze -- -- 10.4
Chromium copper -- -- 20.8
Lead -- -- 26.0
Monel -- -- 20.0
Magnesium -- -- 13.0
Magnesium alloys -- -- 16.0
White metal -- -- 6.0
Zinc -- -- 10.0 to 15.0
As a rule, all the dimensions are going to be altered uniformly unless they are restrained in
some way. For example, a dry sand core at the centre of the casting may restrain the casting from
contracting, but the edges are not restrained. Thus, it may be desirable to provide a higher
shrinkage allowance for outer dimensions compared to those, which may be restrained. The
actual value of shrinkage depends on various factors specific to a particular casting, namely the
actual composition of the alloy cast, mould materials used, mould design, complexity of the
pattern and the component size. The pattern maker’s experience and a little bit of trial are to be
used in arriving at the final shrinkages provided on the pattern. The values shown in Table 1.4
are average values and higher values are to be used for smaller dimensions and vice versa.
The shrinkage allowance is to be added always to the linear dimensions. Even in case of
internal dimensions (e.g. internal diameters of cylinders), the material has a tendency to contract
towards the centre and thus are to be increased. It is also possible to obtain shrink rulers for
specific materials such as steels which are nothing but special scales where dimensions shown
are actually longer by a measure equal to the shrinkage allowance. Dimensions provided by such
a rule can be used at the time of making the pattern. Different shrink rulers are used for different
casting materials.

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Example: 1.1 The casting shown in Fig. 1.21 (a) is to be made in plain-carbon steel using a wooden
pattern. Assuming the shrinkage allowance only, calculate the dimensions of the pattern.

Fig. 1.21 Provision of Allowances for Patterns in Sand Castings (All dimensions in mm)

Solution: From Table 1.4, the shrinkage allowance for steel is 21.0 mm/m.
For dimension 200, allowance is 200 x 21.0/1000 = 4.20 mm
For dimension 150, allowance is 150 x 21.0 / 1000 = 3.15  3.20 mm
For dimension 100, allowance is 100 x 21.0 / 1000 = 2.10 mm
For dimension 80, allowance is 80 x 21.0 / 1000 = 1.68  1.70 mm
The pattern drawing with required dimensions taking shrinkage into account is shown in Fig. 1.21(b).

Double shrinkage allowance is to be provided on the pattern dimensions, if it is to be used for

casting the metallic pattern, which would ultimately be used for moulding to take care of the
shrinkage of the actual metal cast as well as the shrinkage of the pattern metal. This is illustrated in
example 1.2.

Example: 1.2 For the same example as shown in Fig 1.21 (a), if the master pattern is to be made of
Aluminium, calculate the dimensions of the wooden pattern, which is to be used for making the
aluminium pattern.

Solution: Figure 1.21 (b) shows the dimensions of the aluminium pattern.
From Table 1.4, the shrinkage allowance for aluminium is 13.0 mm/m. For plain-carbon steel, it is 21.0
mm/m. The total shrinkage = 13.0 + 21.0 = 34.0 mm/m.
For dimension 200, allowance is 200 x 34.0 /1000 = 6.80 mm
For dimension 150, allowance is 150 x 34.0 / 1000 = 5.10 mm
For dimension 100, allowance is 100 x 34.0 / 1000 = 3.40 mm
For dimension 80, allowance is 80 x 34.0 / 1000 = 2.72 mm
The final dimensions of the wooden pattern for making the aluminium master pattern are shown in Fig.
1.10 (c). The pattern allowance applied for this wooden pattern is called double-shrinkage allowance.
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Example : 1.3 For the same example as shown in Fig. 1.21 (b), if the master pattern is to be made
of aluminum, calculate the dimensions of the wooden pattern which is to be used for making the
aluminium pattern.

Solution: Fig. 1.21 (b) shows the dimensions of the aluminium pattern. For aluminium the shrinkage
allowance is 13.0 mm/m
For dimensions 204.2, allowance is 204.2 × 13.0/1000 = 2.6546 = 2.70
For dimensions 153.2, allowance is 153.2 × 13.0/1000 = 1.9916 = 2.00
For dimensions 102.1, allowance is 102.1 × 13.0/1000 = 1.3273 = 1.30
For dimensions 81.7, allowance is 81.7 × 13.0/1000 = 1.0621 = 1.10
The final dimensions of the wooden pattern for making the aluminium master pattern are shown in Fig.
1.21 (c). The pattern allowance applied for this wooden pattern is called double shrinkage allowance.

1.9.4.2 Finish or Machining Allowance: The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally
poor and, therefore, when the casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or
dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by subsequent machining. Also, ferrous materials
would have scales on the skin, which are to be removed by cleaning. Hence, extra material is to
be provided, which is to be subsequently removed by the machining or cleaning process. The
excess in the dimensions of the casting (i.e., in the dimension of the pattern) over the finished
casting is called machining allowance or finishing allowance. Machining allowance in addition to
shrinkage allowance is given to the pattern. It is added to all surfaces that are to be machined.
This allowance depends Table 1.5 Machining allowances on patterns for sand castings
on casting metal, the type of Allowance (mm)
Pattern Dimension (mm)
moulding used, size and Bore Surface Cope side
shape of the casting, the Upto 150 3.0 2.0 4.5
process employed, method Cast 150 to 300 3.0 3.0 6.0
of machining, the class of Iron 300 to 500 4.5 3.5 6.0
accuracy required on the 500 to 900 6.0 5.0 6.0
surface, the complexity of Upto 150 3.0 3.0 6.0
surface details and the Cast 150 to 300 6.0 4.5 6.0
degree of finish required. Steel 300 to 500 6.0 5.5 7.0
This may range from 2 to 20 500 to 900 7.0 6.0 9.0
mm. In general, ferrous Upto 150 2.0 1.5 2.0
Non-
metals require more ferrous 150 to 300 2.5 1.5 3.0
machining allowance than metals 300 to 900 3.0 2.5 3.0
non-ferrous metals.
Machining allowances for hand moulding are always greater than machine moulding. For
internal surfaces (bores), the allowance is negative, and is slightly greater than external surfaces.
It may be noted that the largest allowances are provided for the surfaces located in the cope half
of the mould, since they are contaminated with slag.
General guidelines for machining allowances are provided in Table 1.5. The machining
allowance provided would ultimately have to be removed by machining. Hence, the cost of
providing additional machining allowance should be carefully examined before finalizing. One
way of reducing the machining allowance is to keep the entire casting in the drag flask such that
dimensional variation and other defects due to the parting plane are reduced to a minimum. The
machining allowances on pattern for sand casting are given in table 1.5.
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Example 1.4 In Example 1.2, what will be the pattern dimension, if all the surfaces of the casting
need to be machined?

Fig. 1.22 Pattern after providing machining allowance (All dimensions in mm)

Solution: From Table 1.5, Machining allowance for bore = 3 mm

Machining allowance for all surfaces = 3 mm
Machining allowance for cope side = 6 mm
The dimension 80, 80 – 2 x 3 = 74 mm
The dimension 100, 100 + 3 + 6 = 109 mm
The dimension 150, 150 + 3 + 3 = 156 mm
The dimension 200, 200 + 5.5 + 5.5 = 211 mm
The final dimensions are shown in Fig. 1.22.

1.9.4.3 Draft allowance: At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the sand mould, the vertical faces
of the pattern are in continual contact with the sand, which may damage the mould cavity as
shown in Fig. 1.23 (a). The tendency to tear away the edges of the mould is greatly reduced, if
the vertical surfaces of the pattern are always tapered inwards from the parting line (Fig. 1.23 b).
The provision of taper on vertical faces of the pattern is called draft.
Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the job. But in general, inner details of the
pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The amount of draft recommended on external
surfaces varies from 10 to 20 mm per meter, and that on internal surfaces is approximately 60
mm per meter. It is important to note that the draft is always provided as an extra metal over and
above the original casting dimensions. The amount of draft allowance needed depends upon the
shape of the casting, the type of pattern and the process. Draft may be expressed in mm per meter
on a side, or in degrees.
Table 1.6 is a general guide to the provision of drafts. The draft allowance given varies for
hand moulding and machine moulding. More draft needed to be provided for hand moulding
compared to machine moulding. In machine moulding the actual draft given varies with the
condition of the machine (new rigid properly aligned, etc. require less draft).

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(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.23 Effect of Draft on Pattern Withdrawing

Table 1.6 Suggested draft values for patterns

Pattern Draft angle of surfaces, degrees
Height of the given surface (mm)
material External Surface Internal Surface
Wood 20 3.00 3.00
21 to 50 1.50 2.50
51 to 100 1.00 1.50
101 to 200 0.75 1.00
201 to 300 0.50 1.00
301 to 800 0.50 0.75
801 to 2000 0.35 0.50
over 2000 -- 0.25
Metal and 20 1.50 3.00
Plastic 21 to 50 100 2.00
51 to 100 0.75 1.00
101 to 200 050 0.75
201 to 300 0.50 0.75
301 to 800 0.5 0.50
One thing to be noted here is that draft is always provided as an extra metal over and above
the original casting dimensions as shown in the following example.
Example: 1.5 Provide draft allowance to the pattern shown in Fig. 1.22 after providing the
machining allowance.

Solution: From Table 1.6, the draft angle is 0.750 for external details and 1° for internal details. Draft
need to be provided only for the dimensions that are perpendicular to the parting line. Hence, for 109
mm size, the taper required is,
External = 109 x tan (0.75) = 1.4268  1.40 mm
Internal = 109 x tan (1.00) = 1.9026  1.90 mm
Based on those dimensions, the sizes are:
The bore dimension = 74 – 2 x 1.90 = 70.20 mm
External dimension = 211 + 2 x 1.40 = 213.80 mm
After providing for this taper, the pattern drawing is as shown in Fig. 1.24 (b) compared to Fig. 1.24 (a),
which has been before providing the draft allowance.

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Fig. 1.24 Example showing the application of draft (All dimensions in mm)

Example 1.6 : Design a split pattern for a gun metal sleeve (Fig. 1.25) assuming shrinkage, draft
allowances, and machining allowance of 2 mm for hole only.

Fig. 1.25 (a) : Sleeve (all dim. are in mm) Fig. 1.25 (b) : Split Pattern (all dimensions are in mm)

Solution: For gun metal shrinkage allowance is 12 mm/m.

Shrinkage allowance for various dimensions:
Dimensions, mm Allowance, mm Final size, mm
200 200 x 0.012 = 2.4 202.4
120 120 x 0.012 = 1.5 121.5
80 80 x 0.012 =1 81.0
40 40 x 0.012 = 0.5 40.5
30 30 x 0.012 = 0.4 30.4
Provide draft allowance of 20 mm/meter.
Draft for 121.5 mm; ½ X 121.5 x 0.02 = 1.2 mm on either side of parting line.
Draft for 81 mm; ½ X 81 x 0.02 = 0.8 mm on either side of parting line.
Considering the machining allowance of 2 mm,
The size of hole = 40.5 – 2 = 38.5 mm
Fillet radius of 5 mm is provided at the corners.
Dimensions of split pattern for gun metal sleeve is shown in Fig. 1.25 (b).
1.9.4.4 Rapping or Shake Allowance: To withdraw the pattern from the mould cavity, it is slightly
rapped all around the vertical faces to make it free from mould cavity and to enlarge the mould
cavity slightly, which facilitates its easy removal. This increase is insignificant for small and
medium size castings, but it must be considered for large castings. Since it enlarges the final
casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimensions should be reduced to account for
this increase. A shake or rapping allowances shall be given to pattern by making it smaller to
compensate for rapping. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly
dependent on the foundry personnel and practices involved. It is a negative allowance and is to
be applied only to those dimensions, which are parallel to the parting plane. One-way-of reducing
this allowance is to increase the draft, which can be removed during the subsequent machining.
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1.9.4.5 Distortion Allowance: A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and, therefore, is likely
to be distortion prone. This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long flat portions, V, U
sections or in a complicated casting which may have thin and long sections which are connected
to thick sections. The foundry practice should be to make extra material provision for reducing
the distortion. Alternatively, the shape of the pattern itself should be given a distortion of equal
amount in the opposite direction of the likely distortion direction. This can be done by trial-and-
error basis to get the distortion amount.
Distortion allowances are applied to the castings of
irregular shapes that are distorted in cooling because of
metal shrinkage. For example, a ‘U’ shaped design with
parallel legs will certainly spread out as in Fig. 1.26 (a).
The pattern maker alters the shape of the U so that the
legs slope towards each other as in Fig. 1.26 (b) to allow
for this distortion. Fig. 1.26 Distortion Allowances
1.9.5 COLOUR CODES FOR PATTERNS
The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the mould maker is able
to understand the functions clearly. Patterns are given protective coating so that the mixture of
sand will not affect the shape of the patterns and will not injure the glued joint. Proper colour
coding systems must be used in order to:
- Identify the different parts of patterns.
- Indicate the type of metal to be cast.
- Identify core prints, seats for loose pieces.
- Identify the surfaces to be machined.
The following colour coding system is most popular and adopted in foundry practice.
Surface Colour
1. Surface to be left unfinished (unmachined) - Black
2. Surface to be machined - Red
3. Core prints and seats for loose core prints - Yellow
4. Parting surfaces on a split pattern - Clear (or no colour)
5. Seats for loose-pieces - Red stripes on a yellow back ground
6. Stop-offs or supports - Diagonal Black stripes on a yellow back ground
1.10 CORES
A Core can be defined as a body of sand, generally prepared separately in a core box, which
is used to form a cavity of desired shape and size in a casting. However, there are some
exceptions to this definition. For example. a pattern can be used to form a core as a part of the
mould, this being known as a Green Sand Core. Similarly, in permanent moulds or dies the
cores are formed by the metallic moulds themselves as an integral part of theirs. Cores, which are
prepared separately in core boxes are called Dry Sand Cores and are held and located in the
moulds in the seats formed by the Core prints provided on the patterns. The main characteristics
required in a good core are the following:
(i) It must be sufficiently permeable to allow an easy escape of the eases formed.
(ii) It should be highly refractory to withstand the intense heat of molten metal.
(iii)It should be hard and strong enough to bear its own weight and the force of molten metal.
(iv) It should have high collapsibility i.e., it should be able to disintegrate quickly after the
solidification of the metal is complete.
(v) It should not carry such constituents, which will give rise to excessive gases on coming in
contact with the molten metal.

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1.10.1 Types of Cores

Various types of cores of different designs and sizes are
employed in different ways in foundry work. A general way of
classifying them is to do so according to their shapes and
positions in the prepared moulds. The main types of these are
described below: Fig. 1.27 Horizontal Core
(a) Horizontal core: It is the most common and simple type of core. It is assembled in the mould
with its axis horizontal. Depending upon the shape of the cross-section of the hole to be made
in the casting, it may have any shape of its cross-section but the most commonly used shape
is cylindrical. This core is supported in the mould at its both ends. Unless it has a non-
uniform cross-section, it is held in the mould on the parting line such that its one half remains
in the cope and the remaining half in the drag (See Fig. 1.27).
(b) Vertical core: It is quite similar to a horizontal core except that it is fitted in the mould with
its axis vertical, as shown in Fig. 1.28. It rests on the seat made at the bottom of the mould by
the core print and is further supported by being located in a similar seat made in the cope.
The top end of the core is provided with more taper in order to have a smooth fitting of the
cope on the core. A major portion of the core usually remains in the drag part of the mould.

Fig. 1.28 Vertical Core Fig. 1.29 Balanced Core

(c) Balanced core (Fig. 1.29): It is used to produce a blind hole along a horizontal axis in a
casting. As a matter of fact, it is nothing but a horizontal core, with the exception that it is
supported only on one end, the other end remaining free in the mould cavity. It is, thus a sort
of Cantilever. Since it has to support the weight of the overhanging portion, the core print
provided on the pattern should be long enough so that sufficient length of the core may be
embedded in the sand to balance the weight of the overhung. However, if the overhung is too
much, such balancing will not be enough and the overhanging length of the core will have to
be supported by means of Chaplets.
(d) Hanging or Cover Core: A core, which hangs vertically in
the mould and has no support at its bottom, is known as a
hanging core. In such a case, it is obvious that the entire
mould cavity will be contained in the drag only. A good
many green sand cores formed in the cope by the Fig. 1.30 Hanging Core
by the pattern are of hanging type. Even otherwise, dry sand
cores can also be suspended from copes by being suitably
fastened to them by means of wires or rods etc., extending
from within the core body to the top of the cope. Unlike
this, a hanging core may be supported on a seat made on the
parting surface in the drag, as shown in Fig. 1.30. It is, then,
known as a Cover Core.
Fig. 1.31 Stop Off Core
(e) Wire core (Fig. 1.31): It is also known as a Stop off Core.
It is employed when a hole is desired to be produced in the casting at such a position that its
axis falls either above or below the parting line. In such a core, its one side remains flush with
the inner surface of the mould and the core, thus, acts as a stop off. The back surface of this
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core is provided with enough taper for its easy location. Many other names, like Tail Core
and Saddle Core, etc., are also given to this type of core according to its shape and use.
Apart from the above there are a few other types also, but they are not so commonly used.
One such rarely used type is a Ram-up Core, which is embedded in the mould. Such a need
arises when placement of core is not possible after ramming. Similarly, when such a pattern is to
be used which carries no core prints, the core is held between cope and drag simply due to the
pressure put by the former. It is known as a Kiss Core.
1.10.2 Core Prints
When a casting is
required to have a hole,
through or blind, a core is
used in the mould to produce
the same. For all those
castings, where coring is
required, provision should be Fig. 1.32 A Typical job, pattern and the mould cavity
made to support the core inside the mould cavity. This core has to be properly seated in the
mould on formed impressions in the sand. To form these impressions, extra projections are added
on the pattern surface at proper places. The projections on a pattern, which form a seat in a mould
for dry sand cores are called Core Prints. The core prints must be of adequate size and shape to
form a seat large enough to support the core against the pressure of molten metal.
In Fig. 1.32, an example of the provision of core prints is shown. The size of the core prints
to be provided is to be estimated based on the specific casting.
1.10.2.1 Types of Core prints
One of the methods that are universally followed is to provide core prints wherever possible.
According to their position, core prints are classified as:
(a) Horizontal core print – Provides a seat for a horizontal core in the mould.
(b) Vertical core print (cope and drag print) – Provides a seat for a vertical core in the mould.
(c) Balanced core print – Provides a single seat on one side of the mould and the core remains
partly in this formed seat and partly in the mould cavity, the two portions balancing each
other. i.e., a balanced core print is used for the horizontal core that is intended for blind holes.
The hanging portion of the core may be supported on chaplets.
(d) Hanging core print (cover core print) – Provides a seat for the core that is required to be
suspended from the top of the mould.
(e) The drop core print (wing or tail print) – Forms a seat for the core providing recess or hole
which is above or below the parting line in the mould.
Stop-off: These are wooden pieces used to reinforce the part of a pattern, which is fragile and
structurally weak. The cavity formed by stop-off is refilled with sand before pouring, because
stop-offs are not concerned with final casting.
1.11 MOULDS
A Mould can be described as a void created in a compact sand mass which, when filled with
molten metal, will produce a Casting. Obviously, it is the impression left behind by a Pattern after
the withdrawal of the latter. It is very natural, therefore, that the said void or cavity will exactly
resemble the shape and size of the pattern, which is responsible for producing it. The process of
producing this cavity or Mould is called Moulding.
A Core can be described as a sand mass produced either within the mould or separately, which
is suitably utilized in the mould to produce an identical shaped cavity in the casting. The process of
producing the Cores is called Core-Making.

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1.11.1 Moulding Materials

A large variety of materials are used in foundries for making mould and cores. Silica sand is
the basic raw material used for making moulds. It consists of SiO 2 from 94 to 97% and is
characterized by high softening temperature (refractoriness) and thermal stability. Other auxiliary
materials such as refractory clay (binder) and additives (wood flour, sea coal etc.) are added to
moulding sand and core sand to impart special properties. A typical composition of moulding
sand for gray iron castings is: Silica sand = 70 to 85%, Clay = l0 to 20%, Water = 3 to 6%
and Additives = 1 to 6%
The other useful sands are: Moulding sand, System sand (backing sand), Rebonded sand,
facing sand, Parting sand, and Core sand. The choice of moulding materials is based on their
processing properties. The properties that are generally required in moulding materials are:
(i) Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding materials to withstand the high temperatures
of the molten metal so that it does not cause fusion. Some refractory materials are given in
Table below.
Material Melting Point, °C Coefficient of linear expansion, × 106/°C
Silica (SiO) 1710 16.2
Alumina (Al2O3) 2020 8.0
Magnesia (MgO) 2800 13.5
Thoria (ThO2) 3050 9.5
Ziroconia (ZrO2) 2700 6.5
Ziron (ZrO2. SiO2 ) 2650 4.5
Silicon Carbide (SiC) 2700 3.5
Graphite 4200 --
(ii) Green strength: The moulding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The
green sand should have enough strength so that the constructed mould retains its shape.
(iii)Dry strength: When the moisture in the moulding sand is completely expelled, it is called
dry sand. When molten metal is poured into a mould, the sand around the mould cavity is
quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand immediately evaporates due to the
heat in the molten metal. At this stage, it should retain the mould cavity and at the same time
withstand the metallostatic forces.
(iv) Hot strength: After all the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach a high temperature
when the metal in the mould is still in the liquid state. The strength of the sand that is
required to hold the shape of the mould cavity then is called hot strength.
(v) Permeability: During the solidification of a casting, large amount of gases are to be expelled
from the mould. The gases are those which have been absorbed by the metal in the furnace,
air absorbed from the atmosphere and other gases that are generated by the moulding and
core sands. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mould, they would be trapped
inside the casting and cause defects. The moulding sand should be sufficiently porous so that
the gases are allowed to escape from the mould. This gas evolution of the moulding sand is
termed as permeability.
Besides these specific properties, the moulding sand should also have collapsibility so that
during the contraction of the solidified casting, it does not provide any resistance which may
result in cracks in the casting, they should be reusable and should have good thermal conductivity
so that from the casting is quickly transferred.
1.11.2 Moulding Sand Composition
The main ingredients of any moulding sand are:
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(a) Silica sand (SiO2) - 80.8%

(b) Alumina (Al2O3) - 14.9%
(c) Iron oxide (Fe2O3) - 1.3%
(d) Combined water - 2.5%
(e) Other inert materials - 1.5%
Besides, some other materials are also added to these to enhance the specific properties of
moulding sand.
1.11.3 Properties of Moulding Sand
The quality of castings depends on the properties of moulding sand. The moulding sand
should have sufficient strength to prevent the damage of mould during handling. The other
desirable properties of moulding sand include: porosity, plasticity, flowability, collapsibility,
refractoriness etc. Besides the chemical composition, these properties are influenced by the type
of binder, amount of moisture and the shape and size of the sand grains. The moulding sand
should posses the following properties:
i) Porosity or permeability: It is that property of sand, which permits the steam and other
gases to pass through the sand mould. When hot molten metal is poured into the sand mould,
it evolves a great amount of other gases while coming in contact with the moist sand. The
moulding sand must be porous so that the gases and steam are able to escape completely
through the walls of the mould. Otherwise, they may penetrate into molten metal and form
blow holes and pores after solidification. Thus, the sand from which the mould is made must
be sufficiently porous or permeable. The porosity of sand depends upon size and shape of
grains, moisture content, clay contents in the moulding sand and degree of compaction
(ramming). Finer grains and increased clay content decrease the permeability. The extent of
ramming of sand directly affects the porosity of the mould. If the sand is too fine, its porosity
will be low. The permeability of sand decreases with the degree of ramming, because hard
ramming reduces the voids in sand.
ii) Plasticity: It is that property of sand due to which it flows to all portions of the moulding box
and acquires a predetermined shape under ramming pressure and retain this shape when the
pressure is removed. The sand must have sufficient plasticity to produce a good mould. The
plasticity of a moulding sand depends on properties of ingredients and binders. Sand with oil
binder exhibits higher plasticity than the sand with clay type binder. The plasticity is
increased by adding water and clay to sand.
iii) Adhesiveness: It is the property of a moulding sand due to which it adheres or cling to the
sides of the moulding box. This enables the mould to retain in a moulding box during
handling. Good sand must have sufficient adhesiveness so that heavy sand masses can be
successfully held in moulding box without any danger of its falling out when the box is
removed.
iv) Cohesiveness: It is that property of moulding sand due to which the sand grains stick
together during ramming. It may be defined as the strength of the moulding sand to hold the
grains together. The strength depends on grain size (decreases with grain size) and clay
content (increases with clay) of sand. The strength of sand in its moist state is known as
green strength and in the dry state is known as dry strength.
v) Green strength: The green sand, after water has mixed to it, must have adequate strength
and plasticity for making and handling of mould. The green strength depends upon the grain
shape and size, amount and type of clay and the moisture content.

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vi) Dry strength: When the molten metal is poured, the sand adjacent to the hot metal quickly
loses water content as steam. The dry sand must have the strength to resist erosion and also
the metallostatic pressure of the molten metal, otherwise the mould may enlarge.
vii) Hot strength: After the moisture has evaporated, the sand may be required to possess
strength at some elevated temperature, above 100°C. If the sand does not possess hot
strength, the metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal bearing against the mould walls may
cause mould enlargement or if metal is still flowing, it may cause erosion, cracks or breakage.
viii) Refractoriness: It is that property of the moulding sand, which enables it to resist high
temperature of the molten metal without softening or breaking down or fusion. The higher
pouring temperature, such as those for ferrous alloys, requires great refractoriness of the
sand. The degree of refractoriness depends upon the quartz contents, and the shape and grain
size of the particles. The higher the quartz content and rougher the granulometric
composition, the higher is the refractoriness of the sand. The higher the contents of
impurities in the sand mixture the lower the refractoriness of molding sand. The
refractoriness is measured by the sinter point of the sand rather than its melting point. The
sinter point of the sand must be higher than the temperature at which the molten metal is
poured into the sand mould.
ix) Flowability: It is the property of moulding sand due to which it flows like a fluid, under
externally applied forces (ramming), in to deeper sections of pattern and uniformly fill the
flask by distributing the ramming pressure evenly. Generally, sand particles resist moving
around corners or projections. In general, flowability increases with decrease in green
strength and decrease in grain size. It also varies with moisture content.
x) Collapsibility: It is the property of moulding sand due to which the sand mould collapses
(breaks) easily after the solidification of the casting in order to allow free contraction of the
metal. This property is particularly important for cores. This property depends on the amount
of sand, clay, the type of binder used, the temperature to which it is heated in contact with the
metal and the time of contact.
1.11.4 Grain size, shape and distribution
Sand grains vary from sharply angular to rounded form. Angular grains do not pack as
closely as round grains (i.e., compactability of angular grain is low), and therefore gives higher
permeability. But green strength increases as the grains become more rounded.
The sands with coarse grains have greater void space than the fine grains. Therefore, the
coarse grain size increases permeability, but decreases green strength.
The grain size distribution has great influence on the properties of the sand. The sand with
wide range of particle size (wide distribution) has higher green strength than sand with narrow
distribution. A sand containing many fines and a wide range of particle size will have low
permeability than the average fineness (grains with medium size) of narrow distribution. The
effect of grain shape, size and moisture content is shown in the Fig. 1.33.

Fig. 1.33 Effect of grain shape, size and moisture content on sand properties

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1.12 GATING
The manner in which the molten metal enters the mould has a great impact on the quality of the
casting produced. As such, the passages through which the molten metal flows should be carefully
designed and produced. The molten metal from the ladle is not poured directly into the mould to
avoid the erosion of the mould surface. In practice, the molten metal is introduced into the mould
cavity through various passages to avoid turbulence and erosion of mould surface. The term gating
system refers to all the passages, through which the molten metal enters into the mould cavity, i.e.,
it includes the pouring basin, runner, gate and riser, etc.
1.12.1 Gating System
The passage way which serves to deliver the molten
metal into the mould cavity is known as gating system.
A gating system, as shown in fig. 1.34 consists of the
following parts.
(a) A pouring cup, which is funnel shape opening in
the upper surface of the cope above the sprue. It Fig. 1.34 Typical Gating System
minimizes the splash and turbulence and promotes the entry of the clean metal only into the
down sprue. In order to prevent the entry of dirt or slag into the downsprue, the pouring basin
is provided with a skim core, strainer core, delay screen or a sprue plug.
(b) A down gate or sprue, which is a vertical opening (usually tubular) through the cope.
(c) A runner, which receives the metal from the down sprue and distributes to several gate
passage ways around the mould cavity. A runner may be used in large castings.
(d) An ingate is an opening (usually horizontal), which carries the metal from the runner to the
mould cavity.
Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect free casting. This can be achieved
by making provision for certain requirement, while designing the gating.
An ideal gating system is expected to meet the following requirements:
a) The mould should be completely filled with the molten metal in the shortest time possible
without having to raise metal temperature nor use higher metal heads.
b) The molten metal should have a continuous uniform flow into the mould cavity with as low
velocity as possible to prevent or minimize turbulence. A turbulent metal flow tends to from
dross in the mould.
c) Formation of oxide and other dross in the flowing metal should be prevented.
d) Unwanted material such as slag, dross and other mould material present in the ladle should
not be allowed to enter into the mould cavity.
e) The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in such a way that
aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented.
f) The molten metal should be prevented from absorbing air or other gases while flowing
through it.
g) The gating system should help in avoiding excessively high pouring temperatures.
h) A proper thermal or temperature gradient should be maintained in the mould so that the
casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or distortions, i.e., to promote directional
solidification of the casting towards the riser.
i) Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no erosion of the gating, mould and core
surfaces takes place.

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j) The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the mould cavity. i.e., the
gating system should facilitate complete filling of the mould cavity.
k) The gating system should have a reservoir of molten metal to compensate for shrinkage
during solidification.
l) The gating system design should be practicable, economical and easy to implement and
removable after casting solidification.
To have all these requirements together is a tall order, still a mould designer should strive to
achieve as many of the above objective as possible. Before going into the mechanics of gating
design, let us describe some of the functions and types of the various gating system elements.
1.12.2 Aspiration Effect
The pressure in the liquid metal stream should not become less than (or should not fall
below) the atmospheric pressure. If it falls Gases produced due to baking of organic compounds
in the mould enter the metal stream and result in porous castings. It is called the Aspiration
effect. In other words, the shape of the sprue should be exactly as that of the metal stream.
1.12.3 Elements of a Gating System
Gating systems refer to all those
elements, which are connected with
the flow of molten metal from the
ladle to the mould cavity. The various
elements that are connected with a
gating system are (Fig. 1.35):
Fig. 1.35 Elements of a Gating System
• Pouring basin or cup
• Sprue
• Sprue base or well
• Runner
• Runner extension
• Ingate
• Riser
(i) Pouring Basin or cup (Fig. 1.36): The
pouring basin or cup is a receptacle (a) Green Sand (b) Dry Sand
(vessel) of molten metal at the top of the Fig. 1.36 Pouring Basin
sprue; and is shaped to assure smooth flow of molten metal. Pouring basin can be formed as
an integral part of the sprue or separately prepared and placed over the sprue.
It makes pouring easier and eliminates aspiration. It should remain full
of molten metal during pouring to prevent the formation of funnel
through, which atmospheric air and slag may enter into the mould
cavity. It also prevents the entry of slag and dirt into the mould cavity.
The usual forms of pouring basins are illustrated in Fig. 1.37. The
pouring basin should be substantially large and placed near the edge of
the flask, Its depth depends on sprue entrance diameter. The depth of
molten metal above the sprue entrance should be 2.5 times the
sprue entrance diameter to avoid the turbulence. A dam, (Fig. 1.37
(b)) provided in the basin traps the dirt and control the flow of metal.
The skimmer provided in the pouring basin (Fig. 1.37 (c)) is able to
prevent the entering of slag into mould cavity.
The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity
because it may cause mould erosion. Molten metal is poured into a Fig. 1.37 Pouring Basins

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pouring basin, which acts as a reservoir from which it moves smoothly into the sprue. The
pouring basin is also able to stop the slag from entering the mould cavity by means of a
skimmer or skim core as shown Fig. 1.36. It holds back the slag and dirt, which floats on the
top and only allows the clean metal underneath it into the sprue. The pouring basin may be
cut into the cope portion directly or a separate dry sand pouring basin may be prepared and
used as shown in fig. 1.36. The molten metal in the pouring basin should be full during the
pouring operation. Otherwise, a funnel is likely to form through which atmospheric air and
slag may enter the mould cavity.
One of the walls of the pouring basin is made inclined at about 45° to the horizontal. The
molten metal is poured on this face such that metal momentum is absorbed and vortex (eddy,
whirlpool) formation is avoided. In some special cases, the pouring basin may consists of
partitions to allow for the trapping of the slag and maintaining constant metal height in the
basin.
The main function of a pouring basin is to
reduce the momentum of the liquid flowing into the
mould by settling first into it. In order that the metal
enters into the sprue without any turbulence, it is
necessary that the pouring basin be deep enough,
and also the entrance into the sprue be a smooth
radius of at least 25 mm. Experience shows that the
pouring-basin depth of 2.5 times the sprue entrance (a) Pouring-basin proportions
diameter is enough for smooth metal flow and to
prevent vortex formation, as shown in Fig. 1.38 (a).
In order that a vortex is not formed during
pouring, it is necessary that the pouring basin be
kept full. Further provision should be made in the
pouring basin so that constant conditions of flow are
established. This can be achieved by using a strainer
core, as in Fig. 1.38 (b). A strainer core is a ceramic-
coated screen with many small holes. The strainer (b) Pouring-basin design with a strainer core
restricts the flow of metal into the sprue and thus
helps in quick filling of the pouring basin. It helps in
providing a smooth flow while restricting the flow
of slag into the mould. A ceramic filter as shown in
Fig. 1.38 (c) completely stops slag allowing only
clean metal to go into the sprue, and also ensures a
constant flow of metal.
The metal should be poured steadily into the
(c) Pouring-basin design ceramic-foam filter
pouring basin keeping the lip of the ladle as close as
Fig. 1.38 Pouring Basins
possible. Pouring basins are most desirable with
castings in alloys, which form troublesome oxide skins (aluminium, aluminium bronze, etc.).
(ii) Sprue: The sprue is a vertical passage that
connects the pouring basin to the runner. It
is usually tapered downwards to minimize
the turbulence and aspiration. Sprue is the
channel through which the molten metal is
brought into the parting plane where, it
Fig. 1.39 Straight Sprue Fig. 1.40 Tapered Sprue
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enters the runners and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity. The molten metal when
moving from top of the cope to the parting plane gains in velocity, and as a consequence,
requires a smaller area of cross section for the same amount of metal to flow at the top. The
velocity of molten metal increases as it descends the vertical sprue. If the sprue is straight or
cylindrical as shown in Fig. 1.39, i.e., with uniform cross-section, the sprue will not remain
full of metal and the metal flow would not be full at the bottom, but some low-pressure area
would be created around the metal in the sprue. Since the sand mould is permeable,
atmospheric air would be breathed into this low-pressure area, which would then be carried to
the mould cavity. To eliminate this problem of air aspiration, the sprue is tapered to gradually
reduce the cross-section as it moves away from the top of the cope as shown in Fig. 1.40. If
the sprue is tapered, the metal lies firmly against the mould walls i.e., sprue will remain full
of metal which reduce the aspiration and minimize the turbulence. The effect of sprue design
is illustrated in Fig. 1.41.
(iii)Sprue Base or Well: Sprue base or
sprue well is a reservoir for molten
metal at the bottom of the sprue to
reduce the momentum of the molten
metal. It is provided directly
beneath the exit of sprue. The
molten metal as it moves down the
sprue gains in velocity, some of
which is lost in the sprue-base well Fig. 1.41 Effect of Sprue Design
by which the mould erosion is reduced. This molten metal then changes direction and flows
into the runners in a more uniform way.
Sprue base or sprue well absorbs the
shock of molten metal, and retains
inclusions and various refractory materials.
It is enlarged and made deeper than runner.
Its size depends on the diameter of sprue.
The diameter of sprue base should be four
to five times the diameter of sprue bottom,
and can be expressed as a ratio of 1:4 and
1:5. Fig. 1.42 Sprue-base-well design
Reasonable proportions for a sprue-base well are presented in Fig. 1.42. A general
guideline could be that the sprue-base-well area should be five times that of the sprue choke
area, and the well depth should be approximately equal to that of the runner. For a narrow
and deep runner, the well diameter should be 2.5 times the width of the runner in a two-
runner system, and twice its width in a one-runner system.

Fig. 1.43 Full Runner

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(iv) Runner: Runner is a horizontal channel and is generally

located in the horizontal plane (parting plane), which
connects the sprue to its in-gates. It receives molten
metal from sprue base, and distributes to the in-gates,
which allows the molten metal to enter the mould cavity.
The runners are normally made trapezoidal in cross Fig. 1.44 Runner Partially Full
section. It is a general practice for ferrous metals to cut
the runners in the cope and the in-gates in the drag. The main reason for this is to trap the slag
and dross, which are lighter and thus trapped in the upper portion of the runners and only
molten metal enters into the mould. For effective trapping of the slag, runners should flow
full as shown in Fig. 1.43. When the amount of molten metal coming from the down sprue is
more than the amount flowing through the in-gates, the runner would always be full and thus
slag-trapping would take place. But when the metal flowing through the in-gates is more than
that flowing through the runners then the runner would be filled only partially as shown in
Fig. 1.44, and the slag would then enter the mould cavity.
(v) Runner Extension: The runner is often extended a little further beyond the last ingate to trap
and retain the slag, other inclusions and various refractory materials that may have been
washed along the stream of molten metal. The metal initially comes along with the slag,
floating at the top of the ladle, and flows straight going beyond the in-gate, and then trapped
in the runner extension. Also, it absorbs kinetic energy causing a smooth flow of metal into
the mould cavity.
(vi) Gates or In-gates: These are the opening through which the molten metal enters the mould
cavity. The shape and the cross-section of the in-gate should be such that it can readily be
broken off after casting solidification, and also that it allows the metal to enter quietly into
the mould cavity.
Depending on their position in the mould cavity and depending on the application,
various types of gates used in casting design are:
a) Top Gate
b) Bottom gate
c) Parting Line Gate
d) Side Gate
e) Risers
f) Chills
a) Top gate: This is the type of gating through which, the
molten metal directly enters the mould cavity from the top Fig. 1.45 Top Gate with strainer

as shown in Fig 1.45. Since the first metal entering the gate reaches the bottom and hotter
metal is at the top, a favorable temperature gradient is formed to enable directional
solidification of casting from the bottom towards the riser. The gate itself may serve as the
riser. Also, the mould is filled very quickly. But, as the metal falls directly into the mould
cavity through a height, it is likely to cause turbulence, mould erosion and excessive
absorption of air and gases takes place. The erosion of mould due to impact can be reduced
by using a large pouring basin with number of holes (pencil gates). A strainer core may also
be fitted in the pouring basin for better results. Also, because it causes turbulence in the
mould cavity, it is prone to form dross and as such top gate is not advisable for those
materials which are likely to form excessive dross.
It is not suggested for non-ferrous material and is suggested only for ferrous alloys. It is
suitable only for simple casting shapes, which are essentially shallow in nature. The three

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main types of top gates are the pencil gate, wedge gate and top gate with strainer core. To
reduce the mould erosion, pencil gates (Fig. 1.45) are provided in the pouring cup. This type
of gate requires minimum of additional runners to lead the liquid metal into the cavity, and as
such provides higher casting yield.
Capabilities of top-gating system are significantly
extended by using direct pour - top gating system,
incorporating insulating sleeve with a ceramic foam filter as
shown in Fig. 1.46.
Advantages:
1. Top gate is the simplest of all the gating systems.
2. The hottest metal remains at the top of the casting, and
proper temperature gradient, which is favourable for Fig. 1.46 Top Gate
directional solidification is maintained.
3. The gates themselves serve as the risers.
Disadvantages: The main disadvantages are:
1. The erosion of mould occurs due to impact of molten metal.
2. Mould should be made up of erosion resistance materials.
Applications:
1. Top gates are used for grey iron castings of simple design.
2. They are employed for medium and large size castings.
3. They are also suitable for castings with heavy bosses.
b) Bottom gate: The gates, which enter into the mould cavity near the bottom of the drag are
called bottom gate. It is particularly used to avoid or reduce erosion and gas entrapment and
to prevent splashing, as shown in Fig 1.47.
In this type of gate, the molten metal
enters the mould cavity at or near its bottom.
When molten metal enters the mould cavity
slowly, the bottom gate provides a smooth
flow of molten metal, reduces considerably
the erosion of mould and core, and
minimizes turbulence. The bottom gate is
generally used for very deep moulds. Inside
the cavity, the metal rises gently upwards. It
takes somewhat higher time for the filling of
the mould. This, however, provides a great
disadvantage also, particularly in large and
deep castings, in that the metal cools
gradually as it rises up. With the result an
Fig. 1.47 Bottom Gate
unfavorable temperature gradient is
produced i.e., the hottest metal remaining at the bottom and coolest at the top (near risers).

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(c) Bottom Gate with Dry Sand core

(a) Simple Bottom Gate (b) Horn Gate (d) Branch Gate
Fig. 1.48 Types of Bottom gates
The directional solidification of the casting is, therefore, adversely affected. This adverse
effect can, of course, be minimized to a considerable extent by pouring some of the hot metal
from ladle directly into the risers. The system may have to use additional padding of sections
towards risers, and large riser sizes to compensate for the unfavorable temperature
distribution. Bottom gating may sometimes be preferable in conjunction with the use of side
risers, since the metal enters the riser directly without going through the mould cavity. The
various types of bottom gates are shown in Fig. 1.48. In dry sand core type as shown in fig.
1.48 (c), the sprue is curved at the bottom end to trap slag and dirt.
c) Horn gate: A horn gate, as shown in Fig 1.48(b) is a type of bottom gate. There is one
disadvantage in its use that it has a tendency of producing a fountain effect in the casting.
However, it is a means of bottom gating without the necessity of a core for the gate.
d) Branch gate: A branch gate, as shown in Fig. 1.48(d), is designed either to feed a single
casting at several points or a number of individual casting.
Advantages:
1. Bottom gating enables a smooth filling of the mould and results in a clean castings.
2. It minimize the turbulence of metal while pouring and prevent mould erosion.
3. It produces good casting surfaces.
Disadvantages: The main disadvantages of bottom gate are:
1. These gates may cause unfavorable temperature gradients compared to the top gating.
2. Directional solidification is difficult to achieve.
3. Involves greater complexity of moulding.
4. Molten metal may be freezed at the bottom and prevents the flow of molten metal
before the mould is full.
Applications:
1. Bottom gating is always preferred to produce sound and clean castings. It is employed
for large size steel castings.
e) Parting Line Gates: These are the most widely used gates in sand castings. These gates are
the simplest both in nature and construction. These gates can either be cut by hand after
separating the cope and drag or formed by an attached gate to the pattern. In this type of
gates, the molten metal enters the mould cavity at the parting line or parting plane, when
some part of the casting is in the cope and remaining part is in the drag as in Fig. 1.49. For
the mould cavity in the drag, it is a top gate and for the cavity in cope, it is a bottom gate.

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Thus, this type of gating tries to derive the best of both the types of gates, viz. top and bottom
gates. Of all the gates, this is also the easiest and most economical in preparation.
These gates are very commonly employed
and are found to give very satisfactory service.
However, if the drag portion of the mould cavity
is very deep, such that the metal has to fall on the
mould bottom through a considerable distance
between the gate and the bottom. Dropping of
metal from such a height on the mould surface Fig. 1.49 Parting Gate
may cause mould erosion or washing of the mould. In non-ferrous metals, this drop promotes
aggravate dross formation and air entrapment (absorption) by metal, leading to an inferior
casting. This can be somewhat reduced by making the gate area large such that the liquid-
metal velocity is minimized and it flows slowly along the walls into the mould cavity.
This type of gating is preferred because moulding work requires less time and skill. This
arrangement provides to use the devices that can effectively trap slag, dirt and sand. The skim
bob may be used to trap slag. Skimming gate or relief gate is connected to runner so that light
particles of slag rise up in this sprue. A strainer core can be placed in the sprue well to
separate the impurities and refine the metal. Skimming gate with a whirlpool runner is used to
rise up light slag particles in the skimming gate due to whirling action. The various types of
parting line gates are shown in Fig. 1.50.
Advantages: -
1. Parting line gates are
simple and easy to
make.
2. In this gating
system, the hottest
molten metal
reaches the riser
which promotes
directional
solidifications. Fig. 1.50 Types of Parting Line Gates
3. No additional gate is
required to connect the mould cavity with the riser. This reduce the cleaning cost of the
castings.
Disadvantages:
1. If the drag portion is deep, some turbulence will occur due to fall of molten metal into
the mould cavity.
2. Dropping of molten metal through a considerable height on mould surface may cause
erosion of the mould.
3. In non-ferrous metals, the drop promotes dross and air absorption into the molten metal
which results in inferior castings.
Applications:
The parting line gates are commonly employed when the drag is very not deep. These
gates produce very satisfactory castings when the parting line is near to the bottom of the
mould. Swirl type gates are particularly suitable for steel castings.
f) Side Gate: These gates are used for heavy and large castings. The difficulty experienced with
bottom gates in large and deep castings can be removed by using Side Gates. In this system,

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the molten metal enters into the mould cavity from sides through a number of in-gates, which
are arranged in vertical steps. The size of in-gates are normally increased from top to bottom
such that the molten metal first enters the mould cavity from the bottom-most gate and as the
level of the metal rises in the mould, the incoming molten metal starts entering near the
surface of the rising metal. This ensures a gradual filling of the mould without any mould
erosion and produces a sound casting. A typical example of a side gate, called the Step Gate,
is illustrated in Fig. 1.51.
In designing a casting, it is
essential to choose a suitable gate,
considering the casting material,
casting shape and size so as to
produce a sound casting.
(vii) Riser: Most foundry alloys shrink
during solidification. Table 1.7
shows the various volumetric liquid
Fig. 1.51 Step (Side) Gate
shrinkages for typical materials. As
a result of this volumetric shrinkage during solidification, voids are likely to form in the
castings, unless additional molten metal is fed into these places which are termed hot spots,
since they remain hot till the end. Hence, a reservoir of molten metal is to be maintained from
which the metal can flow readily into the casting when the need arises. These reservoirs are
called risers.
As shown in Table 1.7, different Table 1.7 Volumetric liquid shrinkages
materials have different shrinkages and Material Shrinkage (%)
hence the risering requirements vary for Medium-carbon steel 2.50 to 3.50
the materials. In grey cast iron, because High-carbon steel 4.00
Nickel 6.10
of graphitization during solidification,
Monel 6.30
there may be an increase in volume
Aluminium 6.60
sometimes. This of course, depends on Aluminium alloy (11-13 % Si) 3.50
the degree of graphitization in grey cast Aluminium bronze 4.10
iron, which is controlled by the silicon Copper 4.92
content. 70-30 Brass 4.50
In order to make them effective, the Bearing bronze 730
risers should be designed keeping the Grey cast iron 1.90 to negative
following in mind. White cast iron 4.00 to 5.75
Magnesium 4.20
 The metal in the riser should solidify
Zinc 6.50
in the end.
 The riser volume should be sufficient for compensating the shrinkage in the casting.
In order to satisfy the above requirements, risers of large diameters are generally used.
But, it proves to be a very expensive solution since the solidified metal in the riser is to be cut
off from the main casting and is to be melted for reuse. Higher the riser volume, lower is the
casting yield and as such it is very uneconomical.
The risers are normally of the following types: Top risers, which are open to the
atmosphere; Blind risers, which are completely concealed inside the mould cavity itself and
Internal risers, which are enclosed on all sides by the casting.
The top riser is the most conventional and convenient to make. But the position where it
can be placed is limited. The top being open loses heat to the atmosphere by radiation and
convection. To reduce this, often insulation is provided on the top such as plaster of paris,

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asbestos sheet, etc. The blind riser, since it is surrounded by the moulding sand, would lose
heat slowly and thus would be more effective. Also, it can be located more conveniently than
an open riser. The best is the internal riser, which is surrounded on all sides by the casting
such that heat from the casting keeps the metal in the riser hot for a longer time. These are
normally used for castings, which are cylindrically shaped or have a hollow cylindrical
portion.
(viii) Chills: In a casting, metallic chills are used in
order to provide progressive solidification or to
avoid the shrinkage cavities. Chills are essentially
large heat sinks. Whenever it is not possible to
provide a riser for a part of the casting, which is
heavy, a chill is placed close to it as shown in Fig. Fig. 1.52 Chill
1.52, so that more heat is quickly absorbed by the chill from the larger mass, making the
cooling rate equal to that of the thin sections. Thus, this does not permit the formation of a
shrinkage cavity. But, use of a chill essentially means providing higher cooling rate, which is
also likely to form a hard spot at the contact area with the chill, and may, therefore, cause a
problem if that areas need further processing by way of machining.

1.12.4 Gating System Design

The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys Bernoulli’s
theorem, which states that the total energy head remains constant at any section. The same stated
in the equation form ignoring frictional losses is,
P V2 Bernoulli’s Equation
h   Constant  Used to calculate flow velocities
w 2g
 Assumptions:
Where, h = potential head above the datum plane, m  steady state,
P = pressure, Pa  incompressible,
V = liquid velocity, m/s  inviscid Flow
w = specific weight of liquid, N/m3
g = gravitational constant on earth, 9.8004 m/s2.
Though quantitatively Bernoulli’s theorem may not be applied, it helps to understand the
metal flow in the sand mould qualitatively. As the metal enters the pouring basin, it has the
highest potential energy with no kinetic or pressure energies. But, as the metal moves through the
gating system, a loss of energy occurs because of the friction between the molten metal and the
mould walls. Also, heat is continuously lost through the mould material though it is not
represented in the Bernoulli’s equation. This lets the casting solidify.
Another law of fluid mechanics, which is useful in understanding the gating-system
behaviour, is the law of continuity, which says that the volume of metal flowing at any section
in the mould is constant. The same in equation form can be,
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
3
Where, Q = volume rate of flow, m /s
A = area of cross section of flow passage, m2
V= linear velocity of metal flow, m/s
It was suggested earlier that sprues are tapered to reduce the aspiration of air due to the
increased velocity as the metal flows down the sprue. This conclusion was drawn by applying the
above equation of continuity along with Bernoulli’s equation.
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The following parameters influences the gating system design.

(a) Design of Pouring basin
(b) Design of Sprue
(c) Pouring time, and
(d) Rate of flow
(a) Design of Pouring basin: The pouring basin should be
designed such that the proper uniform flow system is
rapidly established. This can be achieved by use of : strainer
core, DAM to make steady flow, and sprue plug. It should
be easy and convenient to fill pouring basin.
(b) Design of Sprue (Fig. 1.53): The sprue may be of circular
or rectangular cross-section. It is tapered downwards to
avoid aspiration. As the liquid metal passes down the sprue, Fig. 1.53 Design of Sprue
it loses its pressure head but gains velocity. To reduce turbulence and promote Laminar Flow,
from the Pouring Basin, the flow begins near vertical incline that is acted upon by gravity and
with an accelerative gravity force.
Assuming that, the entire mould is at atmospheric pressure (no point below atmospheric),
and metal in the pouring basin is at zero velocity (reservoir assumption),
Mass flow rate =  A V = constant
Applying continuity equation between point 2 and 3 we get,
2
A1 V 2 gh h h  A1 
A1V1  AV       
A V1 2 gh1 h1 h1  A 
i.e., the area at the top of sprue (A1) can be obtained from the above formula,
A1 h

A h1
Where,
A = area of the sprue at the bottom of sprue which is choke area
h1 = height from the top of pouring basin to the top of the sprue
h = height of metal from top of the pouring basin to the bottom of the sprue
The above equation indicates that the ideal shape of the sprue should be parabolic,
but making parabolic sprue is very inconvenient, therefore it is sufficient to calculate the
inlet and outlet areas from the above equation for a straight taper sprue.
Tapered sprue reduces the rate of flow at which the liquid metal enters the mould
cavity and hence mould erosion is reduced. The area at the sprue exit controls:
(i) Flow rate of liquid metal into mould cavity
(ii) Velocity of liquid metal
(iii)Pouring time
(c) Pouring Time: One of the objectives, for the gating-system design is to fill the mould in the
smallest time. The time required for complete filling of a mould is termed as pouring time. It
is a very important criterion for design. Too long a pouring time requires a higher pouring
temperature (i.e., low pouring rate may not permit the complete filling of the mould cavity in
time, if the molten metal freezes fast and thus defects like cold shuts may develop). Too less
a pouring time (i.e., high pouring rates) leads to turbulent flow in the mould, mould erosion,
rough surface, excessive shrinkages etc., which makes the casting defect-prone. Thus, there is
an optimum pouring time (pouring rate) required for any given casting.

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The pouring time depends on the casting materials, fluidity of the metal, shape, size and
complexity of the casting, weight and section thickness. The various relations used are not
theoretically obtained but established generally by the practice at various foundries and by
experimenters.
The pouring time for steel castings is less as they lose heat very quickly. For non-ferrous
metals, a longer pouring time may be recommended since they lose heat slowly, and also tend
to form dross if metal is poured rapidly.
Since the thickness of casting is effected to a great extent, by the ratio of surface area to
volume of the casting, it is an important variable in calculating the optimum pouring time in
addition to the mass of the casting itself. Normally, while considering the mass of the casting,
it may not be necessary to consider the mass of the gating system because the gating system
is completely filled before metal starts entering the mould cavity. However, if the gating
systems are in comparable size to the actual casting, it may be desirable to include them for
the calculation.
The optimum pouring time (t, seconds) for different commercial casting materials may be
calculated using some standard methods given below.
1) Grey Cast Iron, Mass less than 450 kg
 T 
Pouring time, t  K 1.41   W
 14.59 
Fluidity of iron in inches Fluidity of iron in mm
Where, K  
40 1.575
T = average section thickness, mm
W= mass of the casting, kg
Fluidity, is generally expressed as the distance the liquid metal will flow in a channel.
2) Grey Cast Iron, Mass greater than 450 kg
 T 3
Pouring time, t  K 1.236   W
 16.65 
Typical pouring times for cast iron are:
Casting mass Pouring time in seconds
20 kg 6 to 10
100 kg 15 to 30
100000 kg 60 to 180
3) Steel Castings: Steel has a high freezing range as compared to other cast alloys, it is
poured rapidly to avoid early freezing.
Pouring time, t  2.4335  0.3953 log W  W
4) Brass or Bronze
Pouring time varies from 15 seconds to 45 seconds for casting weighing less than 150 kg.
5) Light Metal Alloys
Unlike steel, Al and Mg alloys are poured at a slow rate, this is necessary to avoid
turbulence, aspiration and drossing.
6) Shell -moulded Ductile Iron (vertical pouring)
Pouring time, t  K 1 W
Where, K1 = 2.080 for thinner sections
= 2.670 for sections 10 to 25 mm thick
= 2.970 for heavier sections
7) Copper Alloy Castings

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Pouring time, t  K 2 3 W
Where, K2 is a constant given by,Top gating = 1.30
Bottom gating = 1.80
Brass = 1.90
Tin bronze = 2.80
8) Intricately Shaped Thin-walled Castings of Mass upto 450 kg
Pouring time, t  K 3 3 W 
Where, W  = mass of the casting with gates and risers, kg and K3 = a constant as given
below.
T (mm) K3
1.5 to 2.5 1.62
2.5 to 3.5 1.68
3.5 to 8.0 1.85
8.0 to 15.0 2.20
9) For Castings Above 450 kg and up to 1000 kg
Pouring time, t  K 4 3 W  T
Where, K4 is a constant given by
T (mm) K4
Up to 10 1.00
10 to 20 1.35
20 to 40 1.50
above 40 1.70
Typical pouring times for castings whose mass is less than 200 kg and average section
thickness of 25 mm are:
Grey cast iron = 40 seconds
Steel = 20 seconds
Brass = 15 to 45 seconds
Typical pouring rates used for different casting alloys are given in Table 1.8. The
calculated values from any of the above formulae may be checked from Table 1.8.
Table 1.8 Typical pouring rates used for different casting alloys
Pouring rate in kg/s for casting of mass, kg
Metal
Up to 10 10 to 50 50 to 100 100 to 500
Pig Iron 1.1 1.5 – 2.0 3.0 – 4.0 3.5 – 6.0
Steel 1.2 – 1.4 1.9 – 2.5 4.0 – 5.0 4.5 – 7.0
Aluminium alloys 0.25 – 0.3 0.5 – 0.7 1.0 – 1.3 1.2 – 2.0
Note: In practice, the pouring time is largely determined by experience.
(d) Rate of Flow: It is known that the area at the sprue exit controls the flow rate of flow of
liquid metal into mould cavity. The area at the sprue exit, which, if is the least is known as
choke area. Choke, is that part of the gating system, which has the smallest cross section area.
In a free gating system, sprue serves as choke. This reduces mould erosion and
turbulence because velocity of liquid metal is less. This system causes air aspiration effect.
In a choked system, gate serves as the choke. Due to high metal velocity and turbulence,
this system experiences oxidation and erosion in mould cavity.
The optimum rate of flow should be such that it should fill the cavity rapidly with
minimum turbulence. The rate of flow is determined by choke area.

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 Choke Area : Having calculated the optimum pouring time, it is

now required to establish the main control area, which meters
the metal flow into the mould cavity, so that the mould is
completely filled within the calculated pouring time. This
controlling area is called choke area. i.e., the smallest area of
any portion of gating system is called choke area. It is usually
the area at the exit of tapered sprue as shown in Fig. 1.54.
Normally, the choke area happens to be at the bottom of the Fig. 1.54 Choke Area
sprue and hence, the first element to be designed in the gating
system is the sprue size and its proportions. The main advantage in having sprue bottom as
the choke area is that proper flow characteristics are established early in the mould.
The choke area can be calculated using Bernoulli’s equation as follows:
The velocity of metal at the bottom of the sprue, V  2gh
Where, h = effective sprue height,
= height of metallic head from top of the metal in pouring basin to the sprue exit.
W
If ‘W’ is the mass of casting, then the average mass flow rate is =  
 t 
W  mass 
Volume flow rate =   V  
 t.   density 
Also, Volume flow rate = AV Where, A = choke area, mm2
W 1W W
Therefore, AV    ⇒A   
 t.  V  t.  t. 2 gh
W
Considering the efficiency factor, A 
C.t. 2 gh
Where,
A = choke area, mm2
W= casting mass, kg
t = pouring time, seconds
 = mass density of the molten metal, kg/mm3
g = acceleration due to gravity, mm/s2
h = effective metal head (sprue height), mm
C = efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system = 0.4 – 0.9 for various
systems.
The effective sprue height ‘h’, of a mould depends on the casting dimensions and the type
of gating used.
The effective sprue height can be calculated using the following relations.
Effective sprue height for top gate = height of sprue
Effective sprue height for bottom gate =
 total height of mould cavity 
 height of sprue  
 2 
Effective sprue height for parting gate =
 (height of mould cavity in cope) 2 
 height of sprue  
 2 x total height of mould cavity 

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The values of height of sprue, height of mould cavity in

cope, and total height of mould cavity are shown in Fig.
1.55 (a, b, and c) for the various types of gating.
The efficiency coefficient of the gating system depends
on the various sections that are normally used in a gating
system. The elements of a gating system should normally
be circular in cross section since they have lower surface Fig. 1.55 (a) Top Gate
area to volume ratio, which would reduce heat loss and
have less friction. Moreover, streamlining the various
gating elements would greatly increase the volumetric
efficiency of the gating system and allow smaller size gates
and runners, which would increase the casting yield.
Whenever a runner changes direction or joins with
another runner or gate, there is some loss in the metal head,
all of which when taken properly into consideration would Fig. 1.55 (b) Bottom Gate
give the overall efficiency of the gating system. Hence,
1
C .
2
A A2
1  K 1 2  K 2 2  ...
A1 A2
Where,
Fig. 1.55 (c) Parting Gate
K1, K2, ... are loss coefficients occurring at changes in
direction or area
A1, A2, are areas down stream from changes, and A is the choke area.
Though this is the most rigorous way of calculating the efficiency factor, it may not be
necessary to go to this length all the time. Though it is preferable to have the choke in the
sprue, it may sometimes be convenient to mould a straight sprue in which case the choke is
provided in the runners.
1.12.5 Gating Ratio
The dimensional features of any gating system are expressed in terms of gating ratio. The
gating ratio describes the relative cross-sectional area of the components of gating system. It
refers to the proportion of the cross-sectional areas between the sprue, runner and in-gates, and is
generally denoted as sprue area, runner area, and in-gate area. It is defined as the ratio of sprue
area to the total runner area to total gate area. Gating ratio of a gating system having sprue cross-
sectional area of 1 sq. cm, a runner cross-sectional area of 3 sq. cm and two gates of each 1.5 sq.
cm is 1 : 3: 3. The gating ratio should be ensured that the sprue, runner and gate remain full
during pouring.
Gating Ratio = Sprue Area : Total Runner Area : Total Gate Area
Depending on the choke area there can be two types of gating systems:
(a) Non-pressurized gating system
(b) Pressurized gating system
(a) Non-pressurized gating system: A non-pressurized gating system has choke at the bottom
of the sprue base, and have total runner area and in-gate areas higher than the sprue area. In
this system, there is no pressure existing in the metal-flow system and thus it helps to reduce
turbulence. This is particularly useful for casting drossy alloys such as aluminium and
magnesium alloys. These have tapered sprues, sprue-base wells and pouring basins. When the
metal enters the mould cavity through multiple in-gates, the cross section of the runner

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should accordingly be reduced at each runner break up, to allow equal distribution of metal
through all the in-gates. The gating ratio of a typical example is,
Sprue : runner : in-gate :: 1 : 4 : 4.
The disadvantages of non-pressurized gating are, the gating system needs to be carefully
designed to see that all parts flow full. Otherwise, some elements of the gating system may
flow partially allowing the air aspiration. Tapered sprues are invariably used with non-
pressurized system. Also, the runners are maintained in drag while the gates are kept in cope
to ensure that the runners are full.
Casting yield gets reduced because of the large metal involved in the runners and gates.
Advantages:
1. Reduce in velocity minimize the turbulence.
2. This system greatly reduce the casting defects associated with the mould erosion.
3. Directional solidification is possible due to smooth filling of runners.
Disadvantages:
1. The rate of flow is small and it is difficult to keep the sprue filled.
2. This system requires large runners and gates thus the casting yield is reduced.
Applications:
1. Non-pressurised system is preferred for dross-forming light alloys such as aluminium
and magnesium alloys.
(b) Pressurized gating system: In a pressurized gating system, normally the sprue area is greater
than the total gate area. i.e., the in-gate area is the smallest, thus maintaining a backpressure
throughout the gating system. Because of this backpressure in the gating system, the metal is
more turbulent and generally, flows full and thereby, can minimize the air aspiration even
when a straight sprue is used (after the initial stages of pouring). When multiple gates are
used, this system allows all the gates to flow full. These systems generally provide a higher
casting yield, since the volume of metal used up in the runners and gates is reduced. Because
of the turbulence and the associated dross formation, this type of gating system is not used for
light alloys but can be advantageously used for ferrous castings. Gating ratio of a typical
pressurized gating system is, sprue: runner: in-gate :: 1 : 2 : 1
The gating ratio such as 1 : 0.75 : 0.5 forms a pressurized system. A gating system that
confirms to a decreasing proportion can be identified as a pressurized gating system. In this
system, sufficient back pressure is maintained on the sprue. It ensures rapidly filling of the
mould. This system is commonly used for grey iron and steel castings. The gating ratios of 1 :
1 : 0.7 and 1: 0.85 : 0.7 are suggested for steel and grey cast iron castings respectively. This
system results in a smaller loss of metal and greater yield. But, it creates high turbulence due
to high velocity of molten metal.
Advantages:
1. Due to sufficient back pressure, the gating system is kept full of molten metal.
2. Less metal is left in the gating system resulting high casting yield.
Disadvantages:
1. Careful streaming is employed to prevent turbulence.
2. High velocities of molten metal may results high turbulence, which result dross
formation and mould erosion.
Applications:
1. Pressurized system is generally preferred for ferrous metals, particularly for cast iron.
Pressurized system may also be applicable for copper alloys such as brasses and
bronzes.

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Pressurized gating systems Non-pressurized gating systems

Gating ratio may be of the order of 3: 2: 1 Gating ratio may be of the order of 1: 3: 2
Air aspiration effect is minimum Air aspiration effect is more
Volume flow of liquid from every ingate is Volume flow of liquid from every ingate is
almost equal. different.
They are smaller in volume for a given flow They are larger in volume because they
rate of metal. Therefore the casting yield is involve large runners and gates as compared
higher. to pressurized system and thus the cast yield
is reduced.
Velocity is high, severe turbulence may Velocity is low and turbulence is reduced.
occur at corners.
1.12.6 Design of runner: While designing the runner system, care should be taken to reduce sharp
corners or sudden change of sections since they tend to cause turbulence and gas entrapment.
Though from the heat-loss factor circular cross-section runners are preferable, traditionally
trapezoidal runner sections are employed to reduce the turbulence. The approximate proportions
are from a square to rectangle with width twice as that of the depth of the runner. ‘When multiple
in-gates are used, the runner cross section should be suitably restricted at the separation of each
runner in the interest of uniform flow through all the sections.
Also, it is a general practice to cut the runner in the cope and the in-gate in the drag to help in
the trapping of slag. In some cases, it was also found to be good to have half of the runner in the
cope and the rest with in-gate in the drag, which effectively reduces slag inclusions. But for
aluminium alloy castings, it is recommended that the runners be placed in the drag and the in-
gates in the cope so that the dross which is heavier (3.99 g/cm3) compared to aluminium (2.70
g/cm3) is restricted. Also, the entry into runners from sprue-base well should be made as smooth
as possible in such castings; otherwise the direction the flow would tend to be turbulent and leads
to drossing when any change abruptly occurs in the cross-sectional area.
For cylindrical castings, the sprues may be located on the axis of rotation with sufficient
number of radial runners feeding the casting. An alternative arrangement is that the sprue is
located to one side of the casting and a runner around the periphery with the properly positioned
in-gates. In case of thin castings, misruns are a problem and, therefore, they should be fed as
quickly as possible with a number of in-gates all around the casting.
1.13 SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTING
When a molten metal is poured into a sand mould, the outer-most metal cools down earlier than
the rest. Thus, a sort of solid shell of reasonable thickness, is quickly formed all along the inside
surface of the mould. This can be described as a Solid Zone, consisting of the chilled solid metal.
All along this zone and inside it there is a pasty mass of metal, which consists of solid crystal
skeletons surrounded by liquid metal. It is known as Mushy Zone. The interior-most metal is
liquid and the area covering it is called Liquid Zone. In pure and eutectic metals there is no
distinct mushy zone, or to say its existence is practically negligible.
Where the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mould, due to the gradual fall in its
temperature, it contracts in volume, thus creating voids inside. These voids are to be filled up by
the molten metal from the interior of the casting, which is still liquid. This process continues till
solidification reaches the risers, which are the last to solidify. Such a progressive solidification
only ensures a sound casting free of internal voids and shrinkage. This type of solidification is
called Directional or Progressive Solidification Evidently, for effective directional solidification,
it should start from the portions, which are at the maximum distance from the riser,, which feeds
them, and proceed towards that riser, such that the riser is the last to solidify. The factors through
which this directional solidification can be controlled are the following:
(1) Proper design and positioning of gating system.
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(2) Proper design and positioning of risers.

(3) Use of exothermic materials at the risers or in the facing sand according to the requirement.
(4) Use of padding to increase the thickness of a desired portion of the casting.
(5) Use of metal chills at suitable points in the mould
1.13.1 Stages of Contraction
The Shrinkage or Volumetric Contraction in a casting is caused by the fall in its
temperature from the pouring to room temperature. This contraction takes place in the following
three stages:
 Liquid contraction. It occurs during the liquid stage of the metal, i.e., when the molten metal
cools down from the pouring temperature to the temperature at which solidification starts.
 Solidification contraction. It is that shrinkage which occurs during the change of state of
metal from liquid to solid.
 Solid contraction. It is that shrinkage, which occurs in the metal after solidification is
complete, i.e., when the temperature falls from the end of solidification to the room
temperature. This shrinkage has no effect on the shrinkage defects in casting as it is covered
in advance by the shrinkage allowance provided by the pattern maker.
The structure and properties of castings depend on the solidification pattern. The
solidification of liquid metal is affected by casting design, chemical composition of casting metal
and casting process. The solidification processes for pure metal and alloy are considered below.
1.13.2 Solidification of Pure Metal
Pure metal freeze at constant temperature (freezing point), which is same as its melting point.
Above the freezing point metal completely liquid and below it completely solid. The liquid metal
cools quickly to freezing point, and then the temperature remains constant until the metal is
completely solidified. Further cooling of solid metal is continued upto room temperature. A
typical cooling curve for pure metal is shown in Fig. 1.56.
Solidification does not occur instantaneously. It starts with the formation of solid particles
(nucleus) within the liquid metal. Once the stable nucleus is formed, the growth of grains begins
by acquiring atoms from liquid.
The grain growth continued until the contact is made with neighboring crystals. This contact
surface becomes the grain boundary.
When the liquid metal is poured into mould cavity, the mould walls extract heat from liquid
metal. This results in formation of small randomly oriented crystals (grains) near the mould face,
and consequently a thin skin or shell of solid metal is initially formed at the interface
immediately after pouring. The grains grow progressively inwards as needles towards the centre.
The growth of grains occur in dendritic fashion. This results in long columnar grains with their
axis perpendicular to the mould face as shown in Fig. 1.56 (b).

(a) Cooling Curve (b) Grain Structure of Pure Metal

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Fig. 1.56 Solidification of Pure Metal

Fig. 1.57 Solidification of an alloy

1.13.3 Solidification of an Alloy
In case of alloys the freezing and solidification occurs over a range of temperature. The exact
range depends on the alloy system and composition of an alloys. As an alloy cools, freezing
begins at liquidus (point B) and is completed at the solidus (point C). Between the liquidus and
solidus the solid and liquid are exist together. The width of region where both liquid and solid
phases co-exist is called Mushy zone. This zone is described in terms of freezing range which is
given as:
Freezing range = TL – TS
< 50 °C for short freezing range, and > 110 °C for long freezing range.
Where, TL liquidus temperature and TS = solidus temperature.
It is possible to determine the values of T L and TS from phase diagram by drawing a vertical
line through the specified composition (x) of an alloy. The points of inter section of vertical line
on solidus and liquidus lines indicate the value of T S and TL respectively. The horizontal
projections from the intersection points to Y-axis give the values of TS and TL (Fig. 1.57 (b)).
In the alloy of short freezing range, crystals grow like columnar or dendrites with sharp
interface between solid and liquid. The alloy finally freezes with a large shrinkage cavity.
Therefore, they require large risers. This pattern of solidification is also observed in pure metals
and alloys of eutectic composition.

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Alloys of long freezing range, freeze with a region ahead of solidified portion. As a result,
there is not sharp interface between liquid and solid. The porosity, in this case, is dispersed
throughout the microstructure and shrinkage cavity is greatly reduced. They have poor fluidity
and grains exhibit variation of composition from centre to periphery. This phenomenon is called
coring.
1.13.4 Contraction of Steel Casting During Solidification
After pouring molten metal in a mould, the casting solidifies with liberation of the heat of
fusion. As temperature decreases, the volumetric shrinkage of casting occurs in three stages.
a) Liquid contraction (1.6% per 100°C) from pouring temperature to the solidification
(freezing) temperature.
b) Solidification contraction (3.0%) during freezing, and
c) Solid contraction (7.2%) as the casting cools from solidification temperature to room
temperature.
The first two contractions are compensated by riser and solid contraction is compensated by
making pattern slightly larger in size than the size of the desired casting.
The change in specific volume of steel casting with temperature is illustrated in Fig. 1.58.

Fig. 1.58 Change in specific volume of steel casting with temperature

1.14 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES
Most commercial metals can be cast in sand moulds. Roughly, 80% of the total output of
castings are made in sand moulds. Sand moulds are cheap, but contribute rejections of castings due
to defects such as blow holes, dimensional deviations and surface irregularities etc. Also, sand
casting is not suitable for mass production. To overcome these limitations, a variety of special
casting processes have been developed. The following special casting methods are commonly used.
1. Shell Mould Casting 2. Investment Casting 3. Permanent mould Casting 4. Die Casting
5. CO2 - process 6. Centrifugal Casting 7. Continuous Casting
1.14.1 Shell Mould Casting
Shell mould casting was invented in Germany (during second world war) by Johannes
Croning, and is sometimes called Croning or C-process. Shell mould casting is modification of
sand casting in which a relatively thin shell forms the mould cavity into which the molten metal is
poured. Also, the mould material is replaced by resin bonding agent (phenol-formaldehyde or
urea formaldehyde) phenolic-resin mixed with fine, dry silica in the presence of alcohol (No
water). Pattern used is made of Grey Cast Iron, Aluminium or Brass and is accurately machined
(good dimensional and surface finish accuracy). The process is illustrated in Fig. 1.59 and
consists of the following steps:

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(a) Preparation of thin shell made of a mixture of sand and

thermo-setting resin around a heated metal pattern.
(b) Separating the shell from the metal pattern.
(c) Clamping two-halves of the shells to form a mould.
(a) Preparation of thin shell: Fine silica sand (free from clay) is
thoroughly mixed with about 5% thermo-setting resin binder
such as phenol-formaldehyde and placed into a container (dump
box). The use of fine sand results in better surface finish, but
requires large amount of resin, which makes the mould
expensive. The metal pattern plate is heated to about 250°C in
an oven and is clamped to the top of the dump box as in Fig.
1.59 (a). The metal pattern incorporates ejector pins to facilitate
stripping of the completed mould. The dump box is inverted so
that the sand resin mixture covers the pattern. After about 30
seconds, the resin cures causing the bonding of sand grains to (a) Preparation of Shell
form a shell around the pattern. The additive such as coal dust
is added to improve the surface finish and avoid thermal
cracking during pouring. Some lubricants (Calcium Stearate (b) Separation of Shell
and Zinc Stearate) may also be added to improve flowability of
the sand and permit easy release of the shell from the pattern.
(b) Separating the shell from pattern: When desired thickness (5
- 10 mm) of shell is formed, the dump plate is returned to its
original position and the surplus sand mixture falls back into the (c) Clamping of Shells
dump box. The pattern plate is removed from the dump box. to Form a Mould
Fig. 1.59 Shell Mould
The shell along with pattern plate is transferred to an oven
Casting process
where the shell is hardened by curing it for about 2 minutes at
315°C. The shell is then released from the pattern plate by means of ejector pins built into
plate. The shells are light and thin; and shell thickness increases with pattern temperature and
contact time.
(c) Mould formation: The shell is further hardened by final curing for a few minutes at about
320°C. The two halves of shell are joined together by using clamps or adhesive to form the
mould. It is placed in suitable box and is supported by coarse sand or steel shots held in a
box. The mould is ready to receive the molten metal. The molten metal is poured into the
completed mould either in a vertical or horizontal position. After solidification the castings
are removed from the sand.
Advantages:
1) Occupies less floor space.
2) Mass Production
3) Skill-ness required is less
4) Shells can be stored and reused.
5) Produce accurate castings with
very good surface finish. This is
achieved due to finer gain sand. Fig. 1.59 Shell Mould Casting process
6) In most cases, machining operation is not required. Because sizes are very close enough
to be acceptable.
7) Thin wall sections upto 0.25 mm thickness can be produced.
8) Good dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm.

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9) Very suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder.

10) Moulds can be designed such that internal cavities can be formed without use of cores.
11) Process can be highly mechanised.
12) Negligible machining and cleaning cost.
Disadvantages:
1) Cost of metal patterns (initial cost) is high
2) Resin binder is an expensive material.
3) Many (specialized) equipments and control facilities are needed
4) Casting size and weight are limited (Process application is limited to small size castings.)
Applications:
Shell moulding is used for making fine castings of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. i.e.,
process is suitable for all cast metals (Alloys of Al, Cu, and ferrous metals). It is particularly
adapted for the castings that range from few grams to 25 kg. Shell moulding applications include
small machine parts requiring high precision such as bushings, valves bodies, rocker arms,
bearing caps, brackets, gears, gear housings, cylinder heads and connecting rods. The process is
also used in producing high precision moulding cores.
1.14.2 Investment Casting
Investment casting is also known as Precision Investment Casting or the Lost Wax Process.
This process involves preparation of an expendable pattern for every casting to be made. For this,
the molten wax, plastic or frozen mercury, which is used as the pattern material is to be poured or
injected into a metal mould or die, which has the cavity of the casting to be made. This pattern is
used for making the mould of investment material, which consists of a refractory material and a
liquid binder. i.e., the mould is prepared around an expendable pattern.
The complete investment procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Die making: The first step always is to make a suitable metal mould or die into which the
melted wax is poured or injected to produce the pattern. These dies can be made either by
using a metallic master pattern and casting a low melting point alloy around it or directly
machining the required shape through a pair of steel blocks. Obviously, a Steel Die will have
a much longer life than the other type. Dowel pins and corresponding holes are always
provided on the mating surfaces of the two halves of dies to secure them proper alignment
with each other. The Pouring Gate is provided with adequate draft to facilitate easy opening
of the die. Cores, if required, are made of metal which are later removed from wax patterns
2. Making Wax Patterns: The die halves are closed and properly clamped. Molten wax, plastic
or frozen mercury, which is used as the pattern material is then poured or injected by means
of a Wax-Injection Machine under pressure of about 2.5 MPa into the metallic die, which has
the cavity of the casting to be made as shown in Fig. 1.60 (a).
Wax patterns are mostly used for investment casting. Low melting point and low
viscosity make waxes easy to mould, and can be injected at low pressure and temperature.
After wax, plastic (polysterene) is the next favourable material for pattern. They are strong,
but more expensive than wax patterns.
Solidification of wax hardly takes 1 to 2 minutes. The wax when allowed to solidify
would produce the pattern. The wax pattern is then removed from the die and the ends of wax
gates are suitably trimmed (Fig. 1.60 (b)). A lubricant is then sprayed on to the die surfaces
and the same closed for casting the next wax pattern.

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(a) Making Wax Patterns (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g)

Fig. 1.60 Steps in the precision-investment casting process
Small shallow vents on the parting surface of the die provide the required venting. The
wax used should have good strength, low shrinkage, and ability to ensure good dimensional
accuracy. It should be brittle enough to break rather than bend.
The actual temperatures and pressures used for Wax Injection depend upon the type of
wax used and the shape and thickness of parts. Similarly, cooling rate and holding time in die
vary with individual part. The Injection Pressures commonly employed are between 8 to 150
kg/cm2.
3. Assembling the Wax Patterns: The next step is to weld a number of small wax patterns to a
common Wax Gating System so that they can be placed together in one mould. The cluster
of wax patterns are attached to the center sprue of the gating system by applying heat to form
an assembly or tree as shown in Fig. 1.60 (c). This is done by means of an instrument called
Hot Wire Welder, which consists of a small piece of resistance wire heated by an electric
current to a temperature just sufficient to melt the wax. Assembly fixtures are employed to
minimize the time for this operation. The complete pattern assembly, including the gates and
risers etc., is then placed in a metal box called Flask, which contains the investment material.
4. Investing: The Investment Materials can be applied around the prepared pattern assemblies
to form the moulds in any of the following three ways:
a) Mix or Pour Method: It consists of making a slurry of finely ground refractory grains by
mixing them with a suitable liquid binder and pouring this slurry into the flask
surrounding the pattern assembly. Vacuum or vibrating technique may be used to remove
the entrapped air. After setting of slurry the mould is ready for baking.
b) Dip-coat Method: It consists of providing a thin coat on the pattern surfaces of the
refractory slurry of the same type as above. After it is dried, a cheaper and coarser
investment material is applied around it. The initial fine coating on the pattern assembly
is provided by dipping it into the slurry. This coating provides a smooth finish on the
casting. The backing investment material effects saving in material cost and provides
higher permeability to the mould.
c) Multiple Dip-coat Method: It is also known as Ceramic Shell Method. In this method,
repeated thin alternate coats of fine slurry and coarser investment material are provided

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on the pattern assembly as shown in Fig. 1.60 (d). Usually 5 to 8 such layers are provided
and a Shell mould of about 3 to 6 mm thickness is formed. The binders commonly used
in preparing the dip coats are sodium silicate and ethyl silicate, although gypsum plaster
may also be used as a binder for shell moulds, which are to be used for pouring
temperatures below 1093°C. The excess liquid is allowed to drain off from the pattern.
The powdered (dry) refractory grains such as fused silica, magnesia, alumina, powdered
glass or zircon are “stuccoed” on this liquid ceramic coating (Fig. 1.60 (e)). Thus, a small
shell is formed around the wax pattern. It is necessary to dry up each layer before the next
layer is applied. The shell is cured and then the process of dipping and stuccoing is
continued with ceramic slurries of gradually increasing grain sizes. Finally, when a shell
thickness of 6 to 15 mm is reached, the mould is ready for further processing. The shell
thickness required depends on the casting shape and mass, type of ceramic and the binder
used.
5. Removal of Wax Patterns: The next step in the process is to remove the pattern from the
mould as shown in Fig. 1.60 (f). The Wax patterns can be removed from the mould by
placing the mould in a long continuous mould-heating furnace in an inverted position i.e., the
sprue downwards. The wax is subjected to temperatures ranging between 760°C to 1093°C
and is melted out due to this heat. The complete operation takes from 4 to 12 hours. However,
there is a danger of damage to the mould due to the difference in the coefficients of expansion
of wax and investment material.
This danger is eliminated by removing the wax with the help of a Solvent Degreaser
instead of heating. This method consists of placing the mould in a bath of trichloro ethylene
vapour, which also enables the recovery of wax for re-use.
6. Pouring and Casting: The prepared moulds are first preheated to a suitable temperature
between 538°C and 1038°C, depending upon the size, complexity and the metal of the
casting. This preheating provides the following advantages:
a) Remaining wax in the mould, if any, is vapourised and evacuated.
b) The preheated mould will help the metal to flow easily and permit proper filling of all
mould sections, which are too thin to be filled in a cold mould.
c) Preheating of mould causes expansion of mould cavity, which in turn, compensates for
the solid shrinkage of the casting.
Moulds are preheated immediately after completion. The metal is usually melted in an
Indirect Arc or a High Frequency Induction Furnace. The molten metal is poured into the
mould under gravity, under slight air pressure, under centrifugal force or by creating vacuum
in the mould as shown in fig. 1.60 (g). The method chosen depends on the type of casting.
Gravity casting method is confined to some large castings only, although it is more
economical than pressure casting. In case of castings having complicated and intricate shapes,
thin edges and serrations etc., the application of pressure for forcing the metal is necessary.
Pressure requirements normally range from 0.24 kg per cm2 to 40 kg per cm2.
In the Air or Gas Pressure Method, a weighed quantity of metal is melted in an Indirect
Arc Furnace. The temperature in the furnace ranges between 1093°C to 1650°C. After the
metal is melted, its temperature is checked by an Optical Pyrometer, followed by securing
the heated mould in an inverted position to the top of the furnace. The furnace is then
inverted to pour the molten metal into the mould. At the same time, compressed air at desired
pressure is injected above the metal, through a cock in the casing of the furnace, to force the
metal into all parts of the mould cavity. After that the mould is removed from the furnace and
allowed to cool for nearly 4 hours. The furnace is inverted back in position for the next melt.

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In Centrifugal Casting method, the weighed quantity of metal is placed in a crucible,

which is kept in a High Frequency Induction Furnace. It takes about 2 to 3 minutes to melt
the charge. After that, the crucible carrying the molten metal is transferred to the casting
machine and pouring done either directly from the crucible or a ladle. Both horizontal and
vertical axis type machines are used for centrifugal casting.
In Vacuum Casting method, a vacuum chamber is sealed to the bottom of the mould.
Vacuum line is connected to this chamber, through which vacuum is created in the mould
cavity and around it. This helps in quick and complete filling of mould when the molten
metal is poured into it.
7. Cleaning and Inspection: After the mould gets cooled, the investment material is broken
through pneumatic hammering and the casting vibrated to separate itself completely from the
investment material. Gates and risers etc., are then chipped off. The chipped spots are then
ground to provide smoothness. The castings are then subjected to Sand Blasting. They are
then inspected through the specified inspection method.
Other pattern materials used are plastics and mercury in place of wax. In the process called
‘Mercast’, the Mercury is kept under –57°C where the mercury is frozen. The complete mould
preparation is to be undertaken at a temperature below –38°C. The main advantage of mercury as
a pattern material is that it does not expand when changed from solid to liquid state as wax. But
the main disadvantage is keeping the pattern at such low temperature, which is responsible for its
diminishing use.
Advantages:
1. Complex shapes, intricate castings, which are difficult to produce by any other method
are possible since the pattern is withdrawn by melting it.
2. Very fine details and extremely thin sections, to the extent of 0.76 mm can be
successfully produced by this process, because the mould is heated before pouring.
3. Better surface finish, high dimensional accuracy, with very close tolerances can be
achieved. This is made possible because of the fine grain of sand used next to the mould
cavity.
4. Surface finish on the castings is of a very high order because of the fine grain sand is used
and the need for further machining is eliminated in most of the cases and minimized
greatly for others.
5. Surface finish on the castings produced by this process is of a very high order and the
need for further machining is eliminated in most of the cases and minimized greatly for
others. This is particularly useful for those hard-to-machine materials such as nimonic
alloys.
6. With proper care, it is possible to control grain size, grain orientation and directional
solidification in this process, so that controlled mechanical properties can be obtained.
7. Castings are quite sound and free from most of the usual defect. This considerably
reduces the proportion of rejects.
8. Since there is no parting line, the casting gives pleasing appearance and the dimensions
across it would not vary.
Disadvantages:
1. The process is normally limited by the size and mass of the casting. The upper limit on
the mass of a casting may be of the order of 5 kg.
2. Size of the castings to be made is limited and cannot be varied at will.
3. Large castings cannot be produced through this method.

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4. One mould can be used for only one casting. Every time a casting is to be made a new
mould has to be prepared. This increases the cost of production.
5. It is a relatively slow process, and is generally preferred where special shapes, thin
sections, high dimensional accuracy and superior surface finish are of vital importance
than the time factor.
6. More expensive process, because of larger manual labour involved in the preparation of
the pattern and the mould. Therefore, cost of production is high.
Applications:
1. This method is used for making intricate castings from metals, which cannot be shaped by
other methods.
2. This process was used in the olden days for the preparation of artifacts, jewellery and
surgical instruments.
3. Presently, the products made by this process are-vanes and blades for gas turbines and jet
engines, shuttle eyes for weaving, pawls and claws for movie cameras, waveguides for
radars, bolts and triggers for firearms, stainless steel valve bodies and impellers for turbo
chargers.
4. The other products of investment casting includes: Impellers for turbo chargers, Special
alloy parts used in chemical industries, Tools and dies, Parts of sewing machines and
washing machines.
1.14.2.1 The Mercast process
It can be described as an extension of the Precision Investment Casting process. It is similar
to Precision Investment (lost-wax) Casting that both the mould as well as pattern are lost, but
differs in that it facilitates production of highly complex contours; intricate sections, undercuts,
etc. with extremely close dimensional tolerances. The process is as follows:
The mercury pattern is made by pouring or injecting Liquid Mercury in to a master die and
frozen to –40°C to form the expandable pattern. The outer surface of the pattern is formed by the
dies whereas the internal surface is formed by a match plate incorporated between the two halves
of the die. After pouring the liquid mercury in the die, it is gradually lowered into a Refrigerated
Acetone Bath. Thus, freezing of mercury progresses gradually from the bottom towards the top.
After freezing is complete, the die is pulled out of the bath, it is opened to separate the mould,
two halves of the mercury mould separated and match plate removed. The pattern halves are then
joined together to form the complete mould. A noteworthy feature in this case is that no extra
adhesive or heat is used to join the pattern halves together. They automatically weld together
firmly on coming in contact with each other in frozen state. The frozen mercury (solid mercury)
pattern is then dipped in a bath consisting of number of ceramic slurries, until a shell of desired
thickness (3 mm) is obtained. These slurries are maintained at a temperature much below the
freezing point of mercury. A stream of mercury at room temperature is then used to flush out the
frozen mercury from the investment.
The ceramic shell mould is then dried at high temperature to impart it a smooth surface. It is
then packed in a sand flask, invested with coarse backing material. The complete mould is
preheated to certain temperature. It is then ready for pouring. Gravity, centrifugal or Pneumatic
method can be used for feeding the molten metal into the mould cavity. After solidification, the
casting is removed from the mould.
After the casting has been cooled, the ceramic shell mould is broken and casting separated.
On account of higher permeability of the moulds the castings are always free from gas
blowholes. Also, the surface finish of the castings is so good that further machining is either
totally eliminated or at least minimized to a great extent.

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This process can produce the castings with good surface finish and close dimensional
tolerance. But initial cost of mercury is high, and the vapours of mercury are poisonous and
needs special means of extraction. Mercast process is suitable for both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, but due to high cost it is used in limited applications.
1.14.3 Die Casting (or) Pressure Die Casting
Die casting involves preparation of components by injecting molten metal at high pressure
into a metallic die. As the molten metal is forced into the die under pressure, it is also called
pressure die casting. The casting produced by die casting method require very little machining.
Because of the high pressure involved in die casting, any narrow sections, complex shapes and
fine surface details can easily be produced.
In die casting, the die consists of two
parts. One is the stationary die half or
cover die, which is fixed to the die-
casting machine. The second part is the
movable die half or ejector die, which is
moved away for the removal of the
casting. The casting cycle starts when the
two parts of the die are apart. The
lubricant is sprayed on the die cavity
manually or by the auto-lubrication
system so that the casting will not stick to
the die. The two die halves are closed and
clamped securely before molten metal is
injected into the die under high pressures
of 7 to 700 MPa. The pressure may be
obtained by the application of compressed Fig. 1.61 Cross section of a die used
air or by hydraulically operated piston. for cold-chamber die casting
After the casting is solidified under pressure, the die is opened and the casting is ejected. A ram
is used for opening and closing the die halves and ejectors pins to automatically eject (push) the
casting as the die is opened after the casting gets solidified as shown in Fig. 1.61. It will also
have cooling channels to extract the heat of the molten metal to maintain proper die temperature.
If the object to be made is small, the die may be constructed on a multi-cavity plan (multiple-
cavity die) by which it is possible to produce several parts in a single cycle.
In pressure die casting no riser is needed in the mould, but very small vents are provided at
the parting line of the die halves in order to allow the escape of air. The speed at which molten
metal enters into the die cavity results little loss of heat during injection and liquid metal can be
forced into the recesses of a complex-shaped mould. Rapid solidification under pressure largely
eliminates the effect of shrinkage, and there is little wastage of metal. The ferrous alloys are not
yet commercially die-casted because of their high pouring temperature.
Following are the types of die casting machines commonly used for die casting.
1) Hot-chamber (gooseneck) die casting machine
a) Hot chamber machine operated by compressed air
b) Hot chamber machine operated by plunger
2) Cold-chamber die casting machine.
3) Vacuum die-casting machine.
4) Low Pressure die-casting machine.

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The main difference between hot and cold types is that in the hot chamber machine, the metal
holding furnace is incorporated with the injection system unit, whereas in the cold-chamber
machine, the metal is melted in separate furnace and then poured into the die-casting machine
with a ladle for each casting cycle, which is also called shot.
1.14.4 Centrifugal Casting
The process of Centrifugal Casting is also known as Liquid Forging. Centrifugal casting is
the method of producing castings in a rapidly rotating mould. The molten metal is poured into
mould, while it is in rotation about its central axis at a speed of 1500 rpm. Due to the Centrifugal
Force produced as a result of rotation, the molten metal is directed outwards from the centre,
towards the inside surface of the mould with considerable pressure. As a result of this, a uniform
thickness of molten metal is deposited all along the inside surface of the mould, and holds it there
until solidification is complete. Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be
acting on the metal as it solidifies. Solidification progresses from the outer surface and the slag,
oxides, impurities and other inclusions present being lighter (remain nearer to the axis of
rotation) gets separated from the metal and are also pushed towards the centre and stick to the
inside surface of the casting which is often removed by machining. This results in hollow
castings such as pipes, or tubes with uniform thickness. This process enables the production of
castings with greater accuracy and better physical properties as compared to sand castings. It
also enables the production of distinct surface details and dense metal structure. Although many
different shapes can be cast through this process, those with symmetrical shapes are best suited
for it. The better physical properties of the castings are the result of proper directional
solidification of the metal inside the mould. It is achieved because the denser (or cold) metal is
automatically forced towards the outer side of the casting by the centrifugal force, whereas the
hotter metal remains on the inner side of the casting to provide the required feeding of metal
‘during solidification. According to the form of the mould, the Centrifugal Casting Methods can
be classified as:
1. True centrifugal casting
2. Semi-centrifugal casting, and
3. Centrifuging (centrifuge casting)
1.14.4.1 True Centrifugal Casting
The main features of a True Centrifugal
Casting are that the axis of rotation of the mould
and that of the casting are the same. Also, the hollow
casting is produced by the Centrifugal force. Since Fig. 1.62 True Centrifugal Casting
the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force no central core needs to be
used for making the concentric hole. The molten metal is fed into the revolving mould. The axis
of rotation of the mould may be horizontal or vertical or any suitable angle in between. Very
long pipes are normally cast with horizontal axis, whereas short pieces are more conveniently
cast with a vertical axis. Moulds are made of steel or graphite and may be coated with a
refractory lining to increase mould life. The molten metal is forced against the mould surface by
centrifugal force until it is solidified. After solidification mould rotation is stopped and the
casting is pulled out from the mould. End Cores are usually employed at the two ends of the
mould to prevent the molten metal from being thrown out at the ends. The principle of true
centrifugal casting is illustrated in Fig. 1.62. This method is normally used for the making of
hollow cast iron pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, gun barrels, etc. which are axi-symmetric with a
concentric hole.

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A typical Horizontal True Centrifugal Casting Machine used for making cast-iron pipes in
sand moulds is shown in Fig. 1.63. It is shown having a large cylindrical mould for casting cast
iron pipes. Similar equipment can be used for casting other cylindrical items. The mould consists
of an outer metallic flask provided with a rammed sand lining inside, to confirm to the outer
contour of the pipe to be made. Any end details, such as spigot ends, or flanged ends are obtained
with the help of dry sand cores located in the ends. Then the flask is dynamically balanced so as
to reduce the occurrence of undesirable vibrations during the casting process. The finished flask
is mounted in between two sets of rollers and the mould is rotated slowly. The bottom rollers are
mounted on a shaft driven by a Variable speed Motor mounted at one end. Pouring the molten
metal in requisite quantity in the mould is done through a Pouring Basin formed on the body of a
Trolley. Wall thickness of the casting is controlled by the volume of molten metal poured into the
mould. Pouring temperatures range between 1482° to 1649°C. Initially, during pouring, the
mould is rotated at a slow speed. After the pouring is over, the mould is rotated at its operational
speed (a very fast speed) to effect even-distribution of the metal all along the inside surface of the
mould and proper directional solidification. After solidification, the moulding flask is replaced by
a new one and the process is repeated.
Metal moulds can also be
used in the true centrifugal
casting process for large quantity
production. A water jacket is
provided around the mould for
cooling it. The casting machine is
mounted on wheels, with the
pouring ladle, which has a long
spout extending till the other end
of the pipe is made. To start, the
mould is rotated with the metal
being delivered at the extreme
end of the pipe. The casting
machine is slowly moved down
the track allowing the metal to be Fig. 1.63 Horizontal true centrifugal casting machine
deposited all along the length of the pipe. The machine is continuously rotated till the pipe is
completely solidified. Afterwards, the pipe is extracted from the mould and the cycle repeated.
For successful casting, the application of correct spinning speed is necessary. Slow speeds
will not allow the molten metal to adhere to the inside surface of the mould and too high speeds
will develop high stresses in the casting. The main factors affecting the selection of a proper
speed are the size and metal of castings. Depending upon these factors the speed requirements
may vary from 50 to 3000 revolutions per minute.
Several type of centrifugal casting machines are available and their design is based on the
size of the castings accommodated. There are two common horizontal axis True Centrifugal
Casting processes:
a) De Lavaud Process: Fig. 1.64 represents the machine designed for the De lavaud process for
making the cast iron pipes. It employs a thin walled steel mould, provided with a refractory
spray inside and which is completely surrounded by a water jacket for cooling. The whole
unit is mounted on wheels so that it can travel along an inclined track. The mould is rotated
by an electric motor, capable of providing variable speeds. A Hydraulic cylinder and Plunger
are used for moving the unit along the track. A long pouring trough is extended into the

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spinning mould. Initially the mould is brought to the raised end of the track and revolved.
Molten metal is started to pour while the mould rotates about its axis. As the pouring
continues, the rotating mould starts travelling down the track away from the stationary end of
the pouring spout at a constant speed. Thus, a uniform layer of molten metal is deposited in a
helical path all along the inside surface of the mould. After solidification, the Casting is
withdrawn and the process repeated for the next casting.
b) Moore Sand Spun
Process: This process
employs a sand lined
mould, driven as usual by
variable speed electric
motor. The mould does
not travel but continues to
rotate in its position. One
end of the mould carries a
Tilting mechanism through
which it can be raised or
lowered. The metal is
poured at this end in its
raised position. Initially
the mould is rotated at a
slow speed and is Fig. 1.64 De Lavaud Method For Making Cast Iron Pipes
gradually lowered to horizontal position as the pouring continues. After the horizontal
position is achieved and the pouring stopped, the speed of rotation is increased and
maintained till solidification. After that the rotation is stopped, Casting removed and the
mould made ready for next casting.
c) Vertical and Inclined axes: Vertical or Inclined axes of rotation for moulds are adopted
generally for short length castings. A general defect noticed in casting produced in these
positions is that the produced central hole is not truly cylindrical. Instead of this, it is a
paraboloidal hole. However, this defect can be minimised considerably by adopting high
spinning speeds. It is important that during pouring the molten metal should be directed
towards the centre of the mould bottom. Permanent metal moulds, sand-lined moulds or
Graphite moulds can be used in the process. The main advantage of adopting these axes of
rotation is the convenience in metal pouring and ejection of casting.
1.14.4.2 Semi-Centrifugal Casting
This process also known as Profiled Centrifugal Casting and is used for jobs relatively
more complicated than those possible in true centrifugal casting. Large symmetrical castings
such as discs, pulleys, wheels with spokes, brake drums, fly wheels, pulleys and gears etc. are
produced using this method. In this method the mould made of sand or metal is rotated (about
350 rpm) about a vertical axis and the molten metal is poured into the mould through a central
pouring basin (sprue). It is not necessary to cast only one mould at a time. For larger production
rates, several moulds can be stacked together, one over the other, and fed simultaneously through
a common central sprue, as shown in Fig. 1.65. The rotating speeds used in this process are not as
high as in the case of true-centrifugal casting. The metal is forced outwards by centrifugal force
and fills the mould cavities completely. The centre of the castings is usually solid, but, if
required, the central hole in the casting may be obtained by using a dry-sand central core. The
speed of rotation of these moulds is much lower than that in True centrifugal Casting. With the

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result, the pressure developed is too low and the impurities are not directed towards the centre as
effectively as in True Centrifugal Casting. The speed of rotation of these moulds is such that a
linear speed of about 180 metres per minute is obtained on the outer edge of the casting. The
moulds used may be of green sand, dry sand, metal or any other suitable material.

Fig. 1.65: Section Through A Semi-Centrifugal Casting Machine.

1.14.4.3 Centrifuging
This is also sometimes known as
Pressure Casting. It mainly differs
from True Centrifugal Casting Methods
in that, the axis of rotation and that of
the moulds do not coincide with each
other, as the moulds are situated at a
certain distance from the central
vertical axis of rotation all around the
same. Shapes of castings do not carry
any limitations in this method and a
variety of shapes can be cast. A number
of small mould cavities are made around
a common central sprue and connected
to the same through radial gates. The
moulds are uniformly placed on the
table around the periphery so that their
masses are properly balanced. The
process is similar to semi centrifugal
casting. Then, the molten metal is
poured, and the mould is rotated around
the central axis of the sprue, i.e. not
about its own axis. From the central
sprue, metal is forced into the several
moulds thorough the gates. For a higher Fig. 1.66 Centrifuging
rate of production, the stacked moulds can be used with advantage. As in Semi-Centrifugal
Method, in this method also the mould assembly is rotated about a vertical axis and centrifugal
force used to force the molten metal from the central sprue into the mould cavities through the
radial gates. Sectional view through a typical mould for Centrifuging is shown in Fig. 1.66.
The centrifuging process is used to to obtain higher metal pressures during solidification and
to produce dense castings in intricate shapes. The process particularly suitable for small castings
of any shape, which are not axis-symmetrical.

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Advantages of True Centrifugal Castings:

1. The castings produced are, very sound, having a clean metal and mechanical properties of
the castings are relatively better compared to other processes, because the impurities,
inclusions such as slag and oxides are pushed towards centre and cling to the inside
surface of the casting which can be easily removed by machining.
2. The castings produced are, very sound, having a clean metal as most of the impurities are
collected on the inner surface and can be removed later on through machining.
3. The castings have dense metal with very good mechanical properties as the pressure
acting on the metal throughout the solidification causes the porosity to be eliminated.
4. Castings of good quality, dimensional accuracy with good surface finish can be obtained.
5. Up to a certain thickness of objects, proper directional solidification can be obtained
starting from the mould surface to the centre.
6. No cores are required for making concentric holes or hollow sections, because the
centrifugal force always push the metal outward.
7. The need of separate gates and risers is totally eliminated and thus increases the casting
yield, reaching almost 100%.
8. An effective directional solidification from the outer surface towards the inner is
invariably achieved unless the wall thickness is excessively great. Too great a wall
thickness may, of course, require the use of some exothermic material to prevent
shrinkage defects.
9. Even minute surface details on castings may be easily obtained.
10. Thin sections and intricate shapes can be easily cast.
11. The production rate is sufficiently high.
12. The percentage of rejects is very low.
13. Inspection of castings is considerably simplified on account of the fact that the defects, if
any, are normally found to exist on the surface and not within the casting.
14. Suitable for all casting metals and alloys, and the castings made by this process are
characterized by high density and also free from shrinkage cavities. This is due to fact
that the pressure is maintained during solidification of molten metal.
15. Adaptable for the large castings having the mass of several tons.
Disadvantages of True Centrifugal Castings:
1. The equipment is expensive and requires a heavy initial investment. Thus, economical
only for large quantity production.
2. All shapes cannot be cast through this process. Only certain shapes, which are axi-
symmetric and having concentric holes are suitable for true centrifugal casting.
3. Its maintenance also is quite expensive and it operation needs the employment of skilled
labour.
4. Not suitable for intricate castings ; only suitable for products with concentric holes.
Applications of True Centrifugal Castings:
1. True centrifugal casting is normally used for making cylindrical hollow products without
using cores. The products of true centrifugal casting include: hollow pipes, tubes and
hollow bushes. The water pipes as long as 300 mm in diameter and 6 m long can be made
by this process.
1.15 CASTING INSPECTION AND DEFECTS
1.15.1 Inspection of Castings: As soon as the castings are cleaned, they are inspected to check and’
control the quality of castings. The inspection methods are classified as:
a) Mechanical (destructive) tests

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b) Non-destructive tests
a) Mechanical Tests: Mechanical tests are intended to determine the mechanical properties of
castings. These tests include:
1. Tensile test to determine the tensile strength, yield strength and ductility.
2. Bend and impact tests to appraise the formability and resistance to shock (toughness).
3. Hardness test to determine the abrasion or wear resistance of castings.
b) Non-destructive Tests: Non-destructive tests are widely employed to control the quality of
castings. They are intended to inspect the various casting defects. Common non-destructive
tests are:
1. Visual examination - for surface cracks and porosity
2. Magnetic and liquid penetrant test for surface cracks
3. Ultrasonic test - for internal defects or laminations.
4. Radiography test - for porosity, slag inclusions and
cracks
5. Dimensional and surface finish examination - quality of
castings.
1. Visual examination: Visual examination is conducted with
naked eye or at low magnification to check the external
defects of castings. It is usually done after cleaning the
castings, arid defective castings are rejected at the initial Fig. 1.67 Magnetic Test
stage.
2. Magnetic test: Magnetic test reveals surface defects of castings made of magnetic material.
It is not suitable for internal defects and defects that lie along the flux lines.
The test consists of magnetising the casting and the edges
of crack at the surface behaves as S-N poles of two magnets.
Thus the magnetic field is setup across the crack. The iron or
any other magnetic particles dusted over the surface will tend
to collect in this reason and reveal the presence of crack. Fig.
1.67 illustrate the principle of magnetic (magflux) test.
3. Liquid penetrant test: Liquid penetrant tests used for
detection of surface crack in non-metallic castings. In this test
the liquid which has low viscosity is poured over the surface
of the casting. This liquid penetrates into crack due to
capillary action, and excess liquid is removed from the
surface. Then the fine layer of an absorbent powder is
deposited over a surface. This acts as a blotter and draws
penetrant out of the defect and reveals the crack. For better
contrast a dyer or a fluorescent penetrant may be used. The
principle of liquid penetrant test is shown in Fig. 1.68.
4. Ultrasonic test: Defects within the castings can be determined
by passing ultrasonic waves of suitable wave length (0.25 to
10 MHz). These waves pass through material and are reflected
back from the far side or from the defect within the casting. Fig. 1.68 Penetrant Test
The position of defect can be located from the time of
reflection (echo time). An oscilloscope is used to display the echo from entry, opposite face
and from the defect.

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Ultrasonic test is widely used for detecting internal

defects in large castings. The principle of ultrasonic test is
illustrated in Fig. 1.69.
5. Radiography test (Fig. 1.70): Radiography test is used to
locate internal defects in castings. It uses x-rays or y-rays to
detect flows. The rays penetrate through solid materials.
During penetration some of the rays are absorbed and
absorption increases with density. This can be readily
visualized on photographic film placed behind the casting.
The absorption is less when the rays pass through holes or
pores. Thus, more rays reach the film and dark spot results. Fig. 1.69 Ultrasonic test
On other hand, if the rays pass through inclusion the absorption is more, few rays reach the
film and light spot results. Thus, proper evaluation of the film intensity reveals the size and
nature of defects.
This test is not effective to detect thin flaws that lie in the direction of testing.
6. Dimensional and surface finish examination: Dimensional control is an extremely critical
in certain requirements. Often standard gauges are employed to check dimensions of a
particular castings.
Smooth surface finish is always desirable and is a rigid requirement for certain
applications. The degree of surface roughness of as cast-surface is compared with cast
standards. The surface roughness can be directly measured by using profilometer.

Fig. 1.70 Radiography Test

1.15.2 Defects in Casting and Remedies
The defects in a casting may be due to pattern and moulding box equipment, moulding sand,
cores, gating system or molten metal. Some of the defects and their reason are discussed below:
1. Mould shift: It results in a mismatching of the top and bottom parts of a casting, usually at
the parting line. It occurs due to following reasons:
(a) Misalignment of pattern parts, due to worn or damaged pattern, and
(b) Misalignment of moulding box or flask equipment.
This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of the pattern, moulding boxes,
correct mounting of pattern on pattern plates.
2. Core shift: It is an abnormal variation of the dimensions which are dependent on core
position. It is caused by
(a) Misalignment of cores in assembling cored-moulds,
(b) Undersized or oversized core prints, and
(c) By using incorrect size of chaplet.
This defect can be eliminated by providing the core at the proper place and must be gripped
properly in the sand.
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3. Swell: It is an enlargement of the mould cavity by molten metal pressure resulting in

localized or general enlargement of the casting. It is due to the following reasons:
(a) Insufficient ramming of sand,
(b) Insufficient weighting if the mould during casting, and
(c) Pouring of molten metal too rapidly or too hard.
The swells are avoided by the proper ramming of sand and uniform flow of molten metal into
the mould.
4. Fins and flash: These are thin projections of metal not intended as a part of casting. These
usually occur at the parting line of the mould or core sections. These are caused by:
(a) Excessive rapping of the pattern before it is withdrawn from the mould,
(b) Insufficient weight on the top part of the mould, and
(c) Loose clamping of the mould.
In order to avoid defect, sufficient weight should be placed on the top part of the mould so
that the two parts fit tightly together.
5. Sand wash: It usually occurs near the ingates as rough lumps on the surface of a casting. The
sand that has been washed away appears on the upper surfaces of the casting as rough holes
or depressions. This is due to the following reasons:
(a) Soft ramming of sand,
(b) Weak sand,
(c) Poor pattern, and
(d) Insufficient draft.
This defect is avoided by the proper ramming of sand.
6. Shrinkage: It is crake in the casting or dishing on the surface of a casting, which results from
unequal contraction of the metal during solidification. This is due to the following reasons:
(a) Improper location and size of gates and runner,
(b) Inadequate risers,
(c) Lack of directional solidification,
(d) Incorrect metal composition, and
(e) Incorrect pouring temperatures.
This defect can be eliminated by the use of feeders and chills at proper locations to promote
directional solidification.
These defects occur because the
casting cannot shrink freely during
cooling, owing to constraints in
various portions of the molds and
cores. Exothermic (heat-producing)
compounds may be used (as
exothermic padding) to control
cooling at critical sections to avoid
hot tearing.

Fig. 1.71 Hot Tears

7. Hot tear (Fig. 1.71): It is an internal or external ragged discontinuity in the metal casting
resulting from hindered contraction occurring just after the metal has solidified. This defect is
due to the following reasons:
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(a) Abrupt changes in section, inadequate filleting of inside corners, and improper placement
of chills.
(b) Poor collapsibility of mould and core material which will place extra stress on certain
details.
(c) Improper pouring temperature.
In order to eliminate this defect, abrupt changes in section should be avoided. The pouring
temperature should be correct and there should be even rate of cooling.
8. Sand blow or blow hole (Fig. 1.72): It is an excessively smooth depression and the outer
surface of a casting. This defect is also called blow hole. This defect is due to the following
reasons:
(a) High moisture content in moulding sand,
(b) Low permeability of sand,
(c) Hard ramming of sand,
(d) Defective gating system, and
(e) Improper venting of sand.
This defect can be removed by proper venting, completely
drying up the mould, selecting proper sand with required
permeability and proper in-gate system for the flow of
molten metal.
9. Core blow: It is an excessively smooth depression on the
inner surface of a cored cavity or a gas pocket immediately Fig. 1.72 Blow Hole
above a cored cavity. This defect is caused by using insufficient baked cores. Thus, cores
should be baked sufficiently before using.
10. Honeycombing or slag holes: These are smooth depressions on the upper surface of the
casting. They usually occur near the ingates. This defect is due to imperfect skimming of the
metal or due to poor metal.
This defect can be avoided by preventing the slag from entering
along with the molten metal.
11. Scabs (Fig. 1.73): These are patches (i.e., slightly raised areas) of
sand on the upper surface of casting. This defect is due to the
following reasons:
(a) Uneven ramming of sand, and
(b) Slow or intermittent running of metal.
The proper ramming of sand and uniform flow of the molten
metal into the mould can eliminate this defect. Another method to Fig. 1.73 Scab
remove this defect is to mix additives such as wood flour, sea coal
or dextrin into the sand.
12. Cold shuts and misruns (Fig. 1.74): These occur when the
mould cavity is not completely filled and an incomplete
casting result. This defect is due to the following reasons:
(a) Too small gates,
(b) Too many restrictions in the gating system,
(c) Pouring head is too low,
(d) Faulty venting of the moulds, and Fig. 1.74 Misrun
(e) Metal lacking in fluidity.

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In order to eliminate these defects, the casting should be designed keeping in mind the
fundamental principles of gating and risering. The thin sections should be preheated and the
molten metal should be poured at the correct temperature.
13. Pour short: It occurs when the mould cavity is not completely filled because of insufficient
metal. It is due to the following reasons:
(a) Interruptions during pouring operation, and
(b) Insufficient metal in the ladles being used to pour the metal.
In order to avoid this defect, the ladle should have sufficient molten metal at the correct
temperature.
14. Metal penetration: It occurs when the alloy being cast tends to penetrate into sand grains
and causes a fused aggregate of metal and sand on the surface of the casting. It is due to the
following reasons:
(a) Soft rammed sand,
(b) Moulding sand and core sand being too coarse,
(c) Improper use of mould and core washes will cause penetration, and
(d) Excessive metal temperature or increased fluidity of metal.
This defect can be eliminated by removing the above mentioned reasons.
15. Run-outs and bust-outs: These permit drainage of the metal from the cavity and result in
incomplete castings. These are due to the following reasons:
(a) A pattern that is too large for a given flask or pattern placed too close to the flask edge
results in a weak spot and cause run-out,
(b) The match plate surface that are out of parallel or uneven results in a poorly formed
parting line and cause run-out,
(c) Inadequate mould weights or clamps will permit the cope to lift which results a runout,
(d) Improper sealing of mould joints causes run-out,
(e) Excessive pouring pressures may cause run-out, and
(f) Misalignment of cope and drag may promote a run-out.
The corrective measures taken in respect of the above reasons will prevent this defect.
16. Rough surface finish: It is merely a lack of sufficient smoothness in the casting. It is due to
the following reasons:
(a) Soft ramming of sand,
(b) Coarser sand,
(c) Hard pouring or too high metal fluidity, and
(d) Improper use of mould and core washes often promote rough casting surface.
This defect can be avoided by using a proper mould and ramming of sand.
17. Crush: It is an irregularly shaped cavity or projection on the castings caused by the
displacement of the sand at the mould joints or core prints, which usually occurs when the
mould is being closed. It occurs due to the following reasons:
(a) Badly made mould joints,
(b) Excessive pressure on the sand surface, and
(c) Too large cores or too small core prints.
This defect can be eliminated by taking proper care in placing the cope over the drag. The
sand in the cope should be rammed properly.
18. Warpage: It is unintentional and undesirable deformation that occurs during or after
solidification. It is due to the following reasons:
(a) Continuous large flat surface on castings, indicating a poor design, and
(b) No directional solidification of casting.

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This defect can be eliminated by modifying the casting design and proper directional
solidification.
Table 19 Probable Causes and Suggested Remedies of Various Casting Defects

S. Name of
Probable Causes Suggested Remedies
No Defect
1 Blow holes 1. Excess moisture content in molding sand. 1. Control of moisture content.
2. Rust and moisture on Chills, chaplets and 2. Use of rust free chills, chaplet and
inserts clean inserts.
3. Cores not sufficiently baked. 3. Bake cores properly.
4. Excessive use of organic binders. 4. Ram the mold s less hard.
5. Molds not adequately vented. 5. Provide adequate venting in mold and
6. Molds not adequately vented. cores
7. Molds rammed very hard.
2 Shrinkage 1. Faulty gating and risering system. Ensure proper directional solidification by
2. Improper chilling. modifying gating, risering and chilling
3 Porosity 1. High pouring temperature. 1. Regulate pouring temperature
2. Gas dissolved in metal charge. 2. Control metal composition.
3. Less flux used. 3. Increase flux proportions.
4. Molten metal not properly degassed. 4. Ensure effective degassing.
5. Slow solidification of casting. 5. Modify gating and risering.
6. High moisture and low permeability in 6. Reduce moisture and increase
mold. permeability of mold.
4 Misruns 1. Lack of fluidity ill molten metal. 1. Adjust proper pouring temperature.
2. Faulty design. 2. Modify design.
3. Faulty gating. 3. Modify gating system.
5 Hot Tears 1. Lack of collapsibility of core. 1. Improve core collapsibility.
2. Lack of collapsibility of mold 2. Improve mold collapsibility.
3. Faulty design. 3. Modify casting design.
4. Hard Ramming of mold. 4. Provide softer ramming.
6 Metal 1. Large grain size and used. 1. Use sand having finer grain size.
penetration 2. Soft ramming of mold. 2. Provide hard ramming.
3. Molding sand or core has low strength. 3. Suitably adjust pouring temperature.
4. Molding sand or core has high
permeability.
5. Pouring temperature of metal too high.
7 Cold shuts 1. Lack of fluidity in molten metal. 1. Adjust proper pouring temperature.
2. Faulty design. 2. Modify design.
3. Faulty gating. 3. Modify gating system
8 Cuts and 1. Low strength of mold and core. 1. Improve mold and core strength.
Washes 2. Lack of binders in facing and core stand. 2. Add more binders to facing and core
3. Faulty gating. sand.
3. Improve gating
9 Inclusions 1. Faulty gating. 1. Modify gating system
2. Faulty pouring. 2. Improve pouring to minimize
3. Inferior molding or core sand. turbulence.
4. Soft ramming of mold. 3. Use of superior sand of good strength.
5. Rough handling of mold and core. 4. Provide hard, ramming.
10 Fusion 1. Low refractoriness in molding sand 1. Improve refractoriness of sand.
2. Faulty gating. 2. Modify gating system.
3. Too high pouring temperature of metal. 3. Use lower pouring temperature.
4. Poor facing sand. 4. Improve quality of facing sand.
11 Drops 1. Low green strength in molding sand and 1. Increase green strength of sand mold.
core. 2. Provide harder ramming.
2. Too soft ramming. 3. Provide adequate reinforcement to
3. Inadequate reinforcement of sand and sand projections and cope by using
core projections nails and gaggers.
12 Shot Metal 1. Too low pouring temperature. 1. Use proper pouring temperature.

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S. Name of
Probable Causes Suggested Remedies
No Defect
2. Excess sulphur content in metal. 2. Reduce sulphur content.
3. Faulty gating. 3. Modify gating of system.
4. High moisture content in molding sand.
13 Shift 1. Worn-out or bent clamping pins. 1. Repair or replace the pins, for
2. Misalignment of two halves of pattern. removing defect.
3. Improper support of core. 2. Repair or replace dowels which cause
4. Improper location of core. misalignment.
5. Faulty core boxes. 3. Provide adequate support to core.
6. Insufficient strength of molding sand and 4. Increase strength of both mold and
core. core
14 Crushes 1. Defective core boxes producing over- 1. Repair or replace the pins, for
sized cores. removing defect.
2. Worn out core prints on patterns 2. Repair or replace dowels which cause
producing under sized seats for cores in misalignment.
the mold. 3. Provide adequate support to core.
3. Careless assembly of cores in the mold 4. Increase strength of both mold and
core.
15 Rat-tails or 1. Continuous large flat surfaces on casting. 1. Break continuity of large flat groves
Buckles 2. Excessive mold hardness. and depressions
3. Lack of combustible additives in molding 2. Reduce mold hardness.
sand. 3. Add combustible additives to sand.
16 Swells 1. Too soft ramming of mold. 1. Provide hard ramming.
2. Low strength of mold and core 2. Increase strength of both mold and
3. Mold not properly supported. core.
17 Hard Spot 1. Faulty metal composition. 1. Suitably charge metal composition.
2. Faulty casting design. 2. Modify casting design.
18 Run out, 1. Faulty molding. 1. Improving molding technique.
Fins and 2. Defective molding boxes. 2. Change the defective molding boxes.
Fash 3. Keep weights on mold boxes.
19 Spongings 1. Availability of dirt and swarf held in 1. Remove dirt swarf held in molten
molten metal, metal.
2. Improper skimming. 2. Skimming should be perfect.
3. Because of more impurities in molten 3. Fewer impurities in molten metal
metal should be there.
20 Warpage 1. Continuous large flat surfaces on castings 1. Follow principle of sufficient
indicating a poor design. directional solidification
2. No directional solidification of casting. 2. Make good casting design

Blow hole Pin Hole Blister Scab (or) Sand Inclusion

Misrun Slag Inclusion Drop Buckle Dross

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