MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS FUNCTION

ORGANIZATION
4 main functions of a computer:
Computer Organization and Architecture offers in-intensity
information of internal working, structuring, and operation  Data processing
of a computer system.  Data storage
 Data movement
 Control

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE When data are received from or delivered to a device that is
directly linked to the computer, the technique is called
Computer Architecture refers to the attributes of a system input-output (I/O), and the device is called a peripheral.
seen to a programmer, or placed every other way, the When data are moved over longer distances, to or from a
attributes which have an immediate effect on the logical remote device, the technique is called data
execution of a program. communications.
Computer Architecture is a useful description of Within the computer system, a control unit manages the
requirements and design implementation for several parts computer sources and organizes the overall performance of
of the computer. its functional components in response to the instructions.
Architecture defines what the computer does.

STRUCTURE
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION Computer Structure:
Computer Organization talks about the functional units and  Central Processing Unit (CPU): Controls the
interconnection that understand the architecture operation of the computer and executes its data
specification. processing functions. Often called the processor.
Computer Organization is how operational attributes are  Main Memory: Stores data.
linked together and contribute to realize the architectural  Input/output (I/O): Moves data among the
specification. computer and its external environment.
 System Interconnection: Some mechanism that
Computer Organization deals with the structural delivers for communication amongst CPU, main
relationship. memory, and I/O.
Organization defines how the computer does. CPU Structure :

4 most Important structural components are:

Computer Architecture is involved with the technique of  Control Unit (CU): Controls the operation of the
hardware components are linked collectively to arrange a CPU and therefor the computer.
computer system. While, Computer Organization is  Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs
involved with the structure and performance of a computer computer data processing functions.
system as understood by the user.  Register: Provides storage internal to the CPU.
 CPU Interconnection: Some mechanism that offers
4 Logic Components of Architecture for communication between a control unit, ALU,
 Instruction Sets and register.
 Addressing modes
 Data types
 Cache Optimization A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
4 Physical Components of Organization First Generation (1946-1959)
 Circuit layout The computer systems of first generation used vacuum
 Adders tubes as the basic element for memory storage and
 Signals circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit).
 Peripherals
Some computers of this generation were:
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 ENIAC
Structure - the technique wherein the components are  EDVAC
interrelated.  UNIVAC
 IBM-701
Function - the operation of every single component as a  IBM-650
part of the structure.
Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) was
designed by and constructed under the supervision of John
Mauchly and John Presper Eckert at the University of  CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
Pennsylvania, was the world’s first general-purpose
electronic digital computer. Fifth Generation (1980 – until date)

The ENIAC was decimal rather than a binary machine. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology was converted to
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) technology.
The ENIAC was completed in 1946.
This generation is primarily based on parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.

Second Generation (1959-1965) AI is a developing section in computer science, which

translates the means and method of creating computer
In this era, transistors have been used that have been systems thinks like human beings.
cheaper, spent much less power, extra compact in size,
extra dependable and quicker than vacuum tubes. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc.,
are used in this technology.
Magnetic cores have been used as the primary memory
and Magnetic tape and Magnetic disks as secondary MODULE 2 – COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY
storage devices.

Assembly language and high-level programming languages

like FORTRAN, COBOL have been used. The Computer Level Hierarchy

Some computers of this generation were:  Level 6: User – executable programs

 Level 5: High-Level Language – C++, Java,
 IBM 1620 FORTRAN, etc.
 IBM 7094  Level 4: Assembly Language – assembly code
 CDC 1604  Level 3: System Software – operating system,
 CDC 3600 library code
 UNIVAC 1108  Level 2: Machine – instruction set architecture
 Level 1: Control – microcode or hardwired
 Level 0: Digital Logic – circuits, gates, etc.
Third Generation (1965-1971) Level 6: User Level
The computer systems of third generation technology used The user-level of the computer system hierarchy is the level
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. most familiar to users, where they interact with applications
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. and executable programs.

In this generation far-off processing, time-sharing, An application is any program, or group of programs, that is
multiprogramming working device have been used. designed for the end user.

Some computers of this generation were: Applications software is capable of dealing with user inputs
and helps the user to complete the task. It is also called
 IBM-360 series end-user programs or only an app.
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)  IBM-370/168 Types of Application Software:
 TDC-316 Presentation Software – a program to show informations in
Fourth Generation (1971-1980) the form of slides. We can create slideshows with text,
graphics, and multimedia elements (e.g., Microsoft
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits was used of this PowerPoint).
era.
Spreadsheet Software – organizes data in rows and
Fourth generation computer systems have become further columns for calculations (e.g., Microsoft Excel).
powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it
gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. Database Software – collection of data related to any
applications (e.g., MySQL, Microsoft Access).
In this era, time-sharing, actual time networks, distributed
operating system had been used. Multimedia Software – combination of text, graphics,
audio, and multimedia software to edit video, audio, and
All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE, etc., had text for various purposes.
been used on this era.
Entertainment – deals with the general public, media, and
Some computers of this generation were: telecommunication. It includes music, video, navigation,
social networking, news, and educational apps.
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000 Simulation Software – imitation of real-world environments
 PDP 11 for education, testing, training, and scientific modeling.
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
Word Processing Software - manipulates and formats text, Systems software can be categorized under the following:
creates documents, and checks grammar and spelling (e.g.,
Microsoft Word).  Operating system: Harnesses communication
between hardware, system programs, and other
applications.
 Device driver: Enables device communication with
Level 5: High-Level Language Level the OS and other programs.
The High-Level Language Level, consists of languages such  Firmware: Enables device control and
as C, C++, FORTRAN, Lisp, Pascal, and Prolog. identification.
 Translator: Translates high-level languages to low-
These languages must be translated (using either a level machine codes.
compiler or an interpreter) to a language the machine can  Utility: Ensures optimum functionality of devices
understand. and applications.
Compiled languages are translated into assembly language Operating System (OS)
and then assembled into machine code.
It is installed first on a computer to allow devices and
The program of high-level language must be interpreted applications to be identified and therefore functional.
before the execution.
Types of Operating Systems
The compiler compiles a set of machine language
instructions for every program in a high-level language.  Real-Time OS: installed in special purpose
embedded systems like robots, cars, and modems.
The linker is used for the large programs in which we can  Single-user and single-task OS: installed on single-
create some modules for the different task. user devices like phones.
 Single-user and multitask OS: installed on
Interpreter immediately executes the resulting machine contemporary personal computers.
language instruction. It takes one statement of the high-  Multi-user OS: installed in network environments
level language program and translates it into machine level where many users have to share resources. Server
language instruction. OSs are examples of multi-user operating systems.
The compiler translates the entire source program into an  Network OS: used to share resources such as files,
object program, but the interpreter translates line by line. printers in a network setup.
 Internet/Web OS: designed to run on the browser
Level 4: Assembly Language Level that is online.
 Mobile OS: designed to run on mobile phones,
In Assembly Language Level, all the high-level languages tablets and other mobile devices.
are changed into assembly language, since the machine
understands only the assembly language. The execution Device Drivers make it possible for all connected
time of assembly language is very low. components and external add-ons to perform their
intended tasks and as directed by the OS.
Assembler
Firmware is the operational software embedded within a
The assembler is simple, and can only convert the code into flash, ROM, or EPROM memory chip for the OS to identify
low-level language. The assembling program performs by it.
using a simple one-to-one mapping from the process of
assembly code to machine code. Programming Language Translators are intermediate
programs relied on by software programmers to translate
The assembly language is also known as a symbolic high-level language source code to machine language code.
language. Popular translator languages are compilers, assemblers, and
The assembly language is machine-dependent, and the interpreters.
high-level language is machine-independent. Utilities are types of system software which sits between
The computer is not able to understand the instruction in system and application software. These are programs
assembly language, but the machine code is intended for diagnostic and maintenance tasks for the
understandable to the computer. computer.

Assembly Language 》Assembler 》Machine Language

Level 2: Machine Level

Level 3: System Software Level The Instruction Set Architecture (ISA), or Machine Level,
consists of the machine language recognized by the
System software mainly helps in operating the process and particular architecture of the computer system. Programs
it establishes the connection between hardware and user written in machine language can be executed directly by
interface. It may consist operating system, library code, etc. the electronic circuits without any interpreters, translators,
or compilers.
Deals with operating system instructions.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) specifies the instructions Some of the basic components of an electronic circuit:
that a microprocessor can execute.
Diodes are used to allow the flow of current in a particular
The instruction set architecture specifies: direction only. Diodes are made up of semiconductor
materials.
 Memory organization – the total addressable
memory locations, the size of each address Transistor is basically a semiconductor device that has three
 Data types terminals. It can be used as an amplifier or a switching
 General purpose registers device.
 Addressing modes
 Instruction set (machine language) – size of Resistor is a passive component that is used to oppose the
instructions (length), instruction formats flow of current in a circuit. Resistors follow Ohm’s law.
 etc. Two types of resistors:
 I/O
 Fixed resistors are unable to alter the value of
Sometimes referred to as machine code or object code, resistance.
machine language is a collection of binary digits or bits that  Variable resistors can change the value of
the computer reads and interprets. Machine language is resistance as per requirement.
the only language a computer is capable of understanding.
Capacitor is consists of two conducting plates between
which there is an insulator. Capacitors are mainly used to
Level 1: Control Level store electrical energy in an electric field.

The Control Level, is where a control unit makes sure that Inductors are used to store electric energy in a magnetic
instructions are decoded and executed properly and that field. It is also used to resist changes in current.
data is moved where and when it should be. Battery is another important component of an electronic
Control units can be designed in one of two ways: They can circuit which is used as a source of power. A battery
be hardwired or they can be microprogrammed. converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

The other option for control is to implement instructions Logic Gates are the most basic components of a digital
using a microprogram. A microprogram is a program circuit. They have two or more inputs and they produce one
written in a low-level language that is implemented directly output.
by the hardware. Logic gates are basically of three types:

 Basic gates: In this type of gates, we can represent

Level 0: Digital Logic Level the Boolean functions either in the sum of
products form or in the product of sums form. The
The Digital Logic Level, is where we find the physical basic logic gates are AND, OR and NOT gates.
components of the computer system: the gates and wires.  Universal gates: These are the logic gates using
which all other gates can be constructed. NAND
Digital circuits are referred to as "random logic". A digital and NOR are the two universal gates.
circuit is a type of circuit that operates on different logic  Special gates: EX-OR and EX-NOR are the two
gates. special gates as they are the two special cases of
The main purpose of this circuit is the transmission of OR and NOR gates.
power to the different components of the circuit. Switch is another component of an electric that is capable
It can perform different types of Boolean operations. of regulating the flow of electric current through the circuit.

The Digital circuit is one such circuit where the signal exists Two Types of Digital Circuits:
in one of the two states which are 0 and 1. Combinational Logic Circuit is made up of logic gates whose
Some of the important components of a digital circuit output is determined by the present input only. The output
include registers, transistors, battery and many more. does not depend on the previous outputs of the circuit.

Digital Circuit Basics Sequential Logic Circuit is one such circuit in which the
output of the circuit not only depends on the present input
A digital circuit comprises various components each of but it also depends on the past outputs.
which is used to perform a specific task.

These components are of two types: active components

and passive components. The active components are the
diodes and transistors while the passive components are
the registers, inductors, capacitors, etc.
MODULE 3 – VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE The design of a von Neumann architecture machine is
simpler than a Harvard architecture machine—which is
The Von Neumann architecture is the essential structure also a stored-program system but has one dedicated set of
upon which almost all digital computer systems were based, address and data buses for reading and writing to
has some of characteristics which have had a huge effect at memory, and another set of address and data buses to
the most popular programming languages. fetch instruction.
Von Neumann Model Von-Neumann Architecture is consisted of:
Historically there have been 2 types of Computers:  Control Unit
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
 Memory Unit
 Fixed Program Computers’ function is very specific  Registers
and they couldn’t be programmed, e.g. Calculators.  Inputs/Outputs (I/O)
 Stored Program Computers can be programmed to
carry out many different tasks, applications are A Von Neumann-based computer:
stored on them, hence the name.  Uses a single processor.
Store Program Control Concept  Uses one memory for both instructions and data.
 Executes programs following the fetch-decode-
The term Stored Program Control Concept refers to the execute cycle.
storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to
perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently. It is also known as IAS computer and is having three basic
units:
The idea was introduced in the late 1940s by John Von
Neumann who proposed that a program be electronically  The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
stored in the binary-number format in a memory device so  The Main Memory Unit
that instructions could be modified by the computer as  The Input/output Device
determined by intermediate computational results.

A stored-program digital computer keeps both program VON NEUMANN COMPONENTS

instructions and data in read–write, random-access
memory (RAM). 1. Control Unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It
directs all input and output flow, fetches code for
Modern computers use the same memory for both instructions and controlling how data moves around the
instructions and data but incorporate caches between the system
CPU and memory. These caches often have separate
sections for instructions and data, known as split cache Examples of devices that require a Control Unit (CU) are:
architecture, to optimize instruction and data fetches using
separate buses.  Control Processing Units(CPUs)
 Graphics Processing Units(GPUs)
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was
the first computing system designed in the early 1940s. It 2. Arithmetic Logic Unit is a part of the CPU that handles all
was based on Stored Program Concept in which machine the calculations the CPU may need, e.g. Addition,
use memory for processing data. Subtraction, Comparisons. It performs Logical Operations,
Bit Shifting Operations, and Arithmetic Operation.
Stored Program Concept can be further classified in three
basic ways: The ALU is a digital circuit that provides arithmetic and logic
operation.
 Von-Neumann Model
 General Purpose System Structure of the ALU:
 Parallel Processing  Register – a very fast local memory cells; are
The von Neumann architecture is also known as the von temporary stored areas for instructions and data;
Neumann model or Princeton architecture. A computer holds data that can perform ALU comparisons with
architecture based on a 1945 description by John von higher speed. Condition Code Register (CCR) is a
Neumann and others in the First Draft of a Report on the special purpose register that stores result of <, =,
EDVAC. and > operations.
 ALU Circuitry – contains an array of circuits to do
The term "von Neumann architecture" has evolved to mathematical/logical operations.
mean any stored-program computer in which an instruction  Bus – data path interconnecting the registers to
fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time the ALU circuitry.
because they share a common bus. This is referred to as the
von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance 3. Registers are very fast computer memory which are used
of the system. to execute programs and operations efficiently.

Different classes of CPU registers:

  Accumulator stores the results of calculations 3 possible ways to transfer data to or from the peripherals:
made by ALU.
 Program Counter (PC) keeps track of the memory  Programmed I/O
location of the next instructions to be deal with.  Interrupt- initiated I/O
The PC then passes this next address to Memory  Direct memory access (DMA)
Address Register (MAR). Handles devices that allow the computer system to:
 Memory Address Register (MAR) stores the
memory locations of instructions that need to be Communicate and interact with the outside world:
fetched from memory or stored into memory.
 Memory Data Register (MDR) stores instructions  Screen
fetched from memory or any data that is to be  Keyboard
transferred to and stored in memory.  Printer
 Current Instruction Register (CIR) stores the most Store information (mass-storage)
recently fetched instructions while it is waiting to
be coded and executed.  Hard-drives
 Instruction Buffer Register (IBR) the instruction  Floppies
that is not to be executed immediately is placed in  CD
the instruction buffer register.  Tapes

Mass-Storage Device Access Methods:

Operations on Memory Direct Access Storage Devices (DASDs)

Fetch (address):  Hard-drives

 Floppy-disks
 Fetch a copy of the content of memory cell with  CD-ROMs,
the specified address.
 Non-destructive, copies value in memory cell. Sequential Access Storage Devices (SASDs)

Store (address, value):  Tapes (for example, used as backup devices)

 Store the specified value into the memory cell I/O Controllers
specified by address.
 Speed of I/O devices is slow compared to RAM
 Destructive, overwrites the previous value of the
 RAM ~ 50 nsec.
memory cell.
 Hard-Drive ~ 10msec. = (10,000,000 nsec)
The memory system is interfaced via:
Structure of the I/O Subsystem:
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
1. Key is pressed on the keyboard.
 Memory Data Register (MDR)
2. Keyboard Controller – sends the scan code for the
 Fetch/Store signal
key to the keyboard buffer.
Memory Unit is a collection of storage cells together with 3. Keyboard Buffer – the keyboard controller sends
associated circuits needed to transfer information in and an interrupt request to system software.
out of the storage. 4. System Software – the system software responds
to the interrupt by reading the scan code from the
The memory stores binary information in groups of bits keyboard buffer.
called words. 5. The system software passes the scan code to the
The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by the CPU.
number of words it contains and the number of bits in Buses
each word.
Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another,
Two major types of memories are used in computer connecting all major internal components to the CPU and
systems: memory, by the means of Buses.
 RAM (Random Access Memory) The Registers, ALU and the interconnecting BUS are
 ROM (Read-Only Memory) collectively referred as data path.
4. Input/output (I/O) Devices Types of Bus:
The method that is used to transfer information between  Data Bus carries data among the memory unit, the
internal storage and external I/O devices is known as I/O I/O devices, and the processor.
interface.  Address Bus carries the address of data (not the
There exists special hardware components between CPU actual data) between memory and processor.
and peripherals to supervise and synchronize all the input  Control Bus carries control commands from the
and output transfers that are called interface units. CPU (and status signals from other devices) in
 order to control and coordinate all the activities  Arithmetic Section: Function of arithmetic section
within the computer. is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Logic Section: Function of logic section is to
MODULE 4 – CPU BASICS AND ORGANIZATIONS perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.
The CPU in current computers is the embodiment of the
“mill” in Babbage’s difference engine. Memory or Storage Unit

CPU or basically a processor is the most important part of This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate
the computer system. CPU is frequently called as the brain results. This unit supplies information to other units of the
of the computer. computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage
unit or the main memory or the primary storage or
The number of instruction carried by the computer in one Random Access Memory (RAM).
second is used to calculate the speed of that computer. That
speed of the computer is calculated in Hertz. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer.
Kilohertz (kHz) = 1,000 Hertz (Hz)
Elements of CPU:
Megahertz (MHz) = 1,000,000 Hertz (Hz)
 Register
Gigahertz (GHz) = 1,000,000,000 Hertz (Hz)  L1 cache memory
 L2 cache memory
Terahertz (THz) = 1,000,000,000,000 Hertz (Hz)
Register is a very small place which is used to hold data of
How the CPU works? the processor. A register is used to store data such as
1. Whenever a data or some instruction or program is instruction, storage address and any kind of data like bit
requested by the user, the CPU draws it from the sequence or any characters etc. The register is the fastest of
RAM (Random Access Memory) and might some all the memory devices.
other hardware for the purpose. program counter (PC) – stores address of the -> next <-
2. The CPU reads the information linked with the task instruction in RAM.
given to it.
3. The CPU starts its calculation and transporting the memory address register (MAR) – stores the address of the
data. current instruction being executed.
4. Before the information is further performed, it has
to travel through the System BUS. memory data register (MDR)– stores the data that is to be
5. The responsibility of the CPU is to make sure that sent to or fetched from memory. 4. CIR – current instruction
the data is processed and is on the system bus. register – stores actual instruction that is being decoded
and executed.
Parts of CPU:
Accumulator (ACC) – stores result of calculations.
 Control Unit
 Logic Unit L1 AND L2 CACHE MEMORY
 Memory or Storage Unit Cache Memory is a kind of memory which is placed in the
Control Unit is used to manage the operation of the CPU. It processor’s chip or may be placed separately linked by a
is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and bus. The use of Cache Memory is to store program
instructions among other units of a computer. Without the commands which are again and again used by software for
control unit, the respective components will not be able to an operation.
execute the program as they don’t know what to do and Levels Of Cache Memory:
when to do.
 L1 cache is extraordinary fast but it is very small. It
In the Hardwired control unit, the control signals that are is mainly placed on the CPU chip.
important for instruction execution control are generated  L2 cache has more data holding capacity than L1
by specially designed hardware logical circuits, in which we cache. It is situated in CPU chip or in the separate
can not modify the signal generation method without chip but connected to CPU with the high-speed
physical change of the circuit structure. alternative data bus.
In microprogrammed control units, subsequent instruction BUSES
words are fetched into the instruction register in a normal
way.  address bus carries the address of the instruction
or data.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)  data bus carries data between processor and the
The function of the ALU is to execute integer calculation memory.
and bitwise logic operations.  control bus sends control signals such as: memory
read, memory write.
4 Main Primary Functions of the CPU

 Fetch: Each instruction is stored in memory and

has its own address. The processor takes this
address number from the program counter, which
is responsible for tracking which instructions the
CPU should perform next.
 Decode: All programs to be performed are
translated into Assembly instructions. Assembly
code must be decoded into binary instructions,
which are understandable to your CPU. This step is
called decoding.
 Execute: While executing instructions, the CPU can
do one of three things: Do calculations with its
ALU, move data from one memory location to
another, or jump to a different address.
 Store: The CPU must give feedback after executing
an instruction, and the output data is written to
the memory.

MULTI-CORE CPU means that more than one processor is

embedded in the CPU Chip.

Single-core CPU – is the oldest type of CPU which is

available and employed in most of the personal and official
computers. The single-core CPU can execute only one
command at a time and its not efficient in multi-tasking.

Dual-core CPU – is a single CPU that comprises of two

strong cores and functions like dual CPU acting like one.

Quad-core CPU is a refined model of multiple core CPU

features and design with four cores on a single CPU.

Hexa-core Processor is another multiple core processor

which is available with six cores and can execute the task
which works rapidly than the quad-core and dual-core
processors.

Octa-core processors are developed with eight

independent cores to execute an effective task that is
efficient and even acts rapidly than quad-core processors.

Deca-core Processor is available with ten independent

systems that are deployed to execute and manage the task
that is successful than other processors that are developed
until now.

TYPES OF CPU

The AMD Opteron series and Intel Itanium and Xeon series
are CPUs used in servers and high-end workstation
computers.

Some mobile devices, like smartphones and tablets, use

ARM CPUs. These CPUs are smaller in size, require less
power, and generate less heat.

MODULE 5 – RISCS AND CISCS, CPU PIPELINING AND

HYPER-THREADING ,CPU CLOCK SPEED BASICS