PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER on austerity and simplicity often went to the

extreme, and he was said to have lived like a

Philosophy
beggar. Known as a vocal critic of well-known
- rooted from the two Greek words Philos philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. His
(love) and Sophia (wisdom) hence the word teachings and views were later developed by his
philosophy means love of “wisdom”. followers and influenced the development of
- study or discipline that uses human reason several schools of philosophy such as Cynicism and
to investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, Stoicism.
and principles which govern all things.
Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE) - He believed that
Philosophers (lovers of wisdom) – people who philosophy could enable man to live a life of
engage in philosophy. happiness. His views gave rise to Epicureanism – a
school of philosophy which believes that wisdom
NOTABLE ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS
and simple living will result in a life free of fear and
Greece – the birthplace of Philosophy in the West. pain.
To be more precise it is the ancient Greek City of
Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) – Foremost
Miletus on the Western coast of what is now
philosopher of ancient times. Great contributions
Turkey. It is in this city that the first philosopher in
to the field of ethics. Known critic pf intellectuals
the West, Thales, lived.
during his time, but he himself did not claim to be
Thales - greatest contribution to philosophy is not “wise” and considered himself a “midlife” that
his identification of water as the ultimate stuff of helped inquiring minds achieve wisdom. He also
the universe. His greatest contribution is the believed that philosophy could enable a man to live
problem he posed “What is the ultimate stuff of a life of virtue. Formulated the Socratic Method –
the universe?” and his approach in solving that examining a topic by devising series of questions
problem. that let the learner examine and analyze his
knowledge and views regarding the topic.
Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) – A
mathematician and scientist, credited with Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) – A student of Socrates,
formulating Pythagorean Theorem. wrote down his mentor’s teachings and
incorporated some of his own ideas to them. His
Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) – He proposed
teachings and writings were considered the
that everything that exists is based on a higher
foundation of Western Philosophy. Most significant
order or plan which he called logos. For him,
idea was Theory of Forms – proposes that
change is a permanent aspect of a human
everything exists is based on an idea or template
condition as he was credited with the saying “No
that can only be perceived in the mind; these
man ever steps in the same river twice”.
nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging. He
Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) – He devoted also focused his studies on the ideal society and
himself to the study of the causes of natural proposed an ideal model of government and
phenomena. He was among the first to propose society which is ruled by wisdom and reason.
that matter is composed of tiny particles called Known for Dialectic – a method of inquiry where
atoms. two opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to
arrive at new knowledge. His lasting contribution
Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE) – He was
was his founding of the Academy – an institution of
known advocate of living a simple and virtuous life.
higher learning which was the first of its kind on
For him, one should not only talk of virtue but
the Western World.
should show it in words and actions. His emphasis
Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) – He attended the Frameworks- is defined as a way of thinking about
Academy and was a prominent student of Plato. the world and is composed of the views and beliefs
However, he disagreed with Plato’s Theory of of a person.
Forms. For him, all ideas and views are based on
Internal questions - questions dealing with our
perception and our reality is based on what we can
own correctness and values.
sense and perceive. He was involved in Zoology,
Psychology, Ethics, and Politics. He proposed a External question - seek to question the very
system for the classification of plants and animals. framework upon which people base their own
His studies in logic led to formulation of a formal beliefs and views.
process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise to
Philosophy can also be thought of as an
Deductive reasoning - specific statements are
examination of a particular area of knowledge.
analyzed to reach a conclusion or generalization.
Philosophy itself is a distinct area of knowledge
with its own goal. Concerns, and ways of doing
WHY IS THERE A NEED TO PHILOSOPHIZE? things.
• Each one of us is a philosopher, whether or BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
not we have studied philosophy.
Metaphysics - study of things beyond the physical,
• We have the tendency to wonder and concepts or things that cannot be experienced.
doubt Foundation of philosophy and considered as the
first philosophy.
Ontology (General Metaphysics) - studies beings in
Sense of Wonder by Plato – Whenever we are
their ultimate causes, reasons, and basic principles
confronted with an experience, we always wonder
through the aid of reason alone
how it came about.
Cosmology (Special Metaphysics) – rooted from
To Doubt by Rene Descartes - He was famous for
logos (study) and cosmos (world) which studies
rejecting or questioning established ideas even his
the world (or universe) including its origin,
own. His method of examining ideas and
dynamics, and characteristics, as well as the laws
perspectives became the basis of critical thinking
that govern its order.
and analysis in sciences, an example of this is
testing hypotheses. PHSYCHOLOGY (Special Metaphysics) – came from
the two words psyche (soul/mind) and logos
Experiences by Karl Jaspers – A man is confronted
(study) which study of the nature dynamics of the
by experiences which challenge his ideas and
human person as a whole with emphasis on the
frameworks. He called these experiences as limit
way the person’s mind functions and the way
situations and these are often accompanied by
she/he behaves.
various feelings.
THEODICY OR NATURAL THEOLOGY (Special
Love for Wisdom – To love wisdom is to have an
Metaphysics) – rooted from the words theos (God)
insatiable desire for truth.
which means study of God, justification of the
goodness of God in the face of the existence of the
evil.
How do we characterize the study of philosophy?
EPISTIMOLOGY (2nd branch of Philosophy) – came
from the words episteme (knowledge) and logos
(study) basically the study of the nature of
knowledge and knowing. Branch of philosophy that - Focuses on the specific aspects of a
studies the nature and means of human situation.
knowledge.
Partial Thinking - It is an important component of
LOGIC - logos (science of correct thinking) study of analytical thinking, as an individual focus on certain
the principle and criteria of a valid argument and areas or aspects of a problem in order to
distinguish sound and valid reasoning from understand it
unsound and bad reasoning.
Holistic Perspective - enables a person to step back
ETHICS - ethos (custom or habit) - morality of and consider the general aspects of a certain
human actions, how human persons ought to act, problem. Adopting a holistic approach in thinking
and the search for a definition of a right conduct, encourages us not only be more critical but also to
and good life. be more considerate in dealing with others.
Politics - a branch of philosophy “which defines the A holistic view also gives rise to a more
principles of a proper social system.” According to appreciative perspective about life, as we are able
Rand “proper” means proper for human beings to look at life in its totality.
which presupposes that one knows what a human
Example: Savor/taste food in its entirely and not
being is.
pick out each ingredients and taste it.
Aesthetics - the philosophy which deals with
All positive and negative experiences in our life
beauty and what makes things beautiful.
come together to give meaning to our existence
Philosophy of the human person - an area in and we learn to appreciate our individual
philosophy that understands the human person experiences, a vital aspect of a larger and more
from a philosophical perspective- integrating and meaningful life.
synthesizing the different branches of philosophy
Reflection - requires a person to be willing to
and other fields of study to know the truth about
examine one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions and
human persons.
to learn more about one’s life and experience.
Two Important facts about philosophizing:
In engaging reflection in our lives…
1. philosophy is a reflective and meditative
- allow you an opportunity to think more
activity;
deeply about my action, your motivation for
2. a method of mental exercise doing such action, and even its possible
consequences.
• Reflection is vital in ensuring that our
HOLISTIC AND PARTIAL THINKING
actions and decisions are well thought out
Holistic Thinking and are done with due regard for their
implications and consequences on
- Refers to a perspective that considers large-
ourselves, and our surroundings
scale patterns in the system.
- Looking at the “Big Picture” • Reflection helps us understand ourselves
- Requires a person to have an open mindset and
and the ability to get a general sense or
impression regarding a situation.
• our actions better. What are the practical uses of Philosophy in our
daily lives?
 • Philosophy enables a person to engage in Knowledge – clear awareness and understanding
critical analysis and interpretation of of something. It is the product of questions that
concepts, definitions, arguments, and allow for clear answers provided by facts.
problems.
Facts – are prepositions or statements which are
• Philosophy also improves problem-solving observed to be real or truthful.
decision making.
Claim – statements that need further examination
• A philosopher is a good communicator who to determine whether they are true or false.
can clearly and adequately present his or
HOW DO WE KNOW IF SOMETHING IS TRUE?
her ideas.
1. A belief is true if it can be proven or
• Wisdom = Philosophy
justified through the use one’s senses.
• Wisdom - the ability to make sound choices 2. A belief or statement is true if it is based on
and judgment facts.
3. Getting a consensus or having people agree
• Finally, knowledge of Philosophy can
on a common belief.
contribute to self-development.
4. Determining truth requires a person to
prove a statement through actions.

LESSON 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING Claims and beliefs should also be subjected to tests
to determine truth.
Propositions – statements about the world or
reality, may or may not carry truth. Usually are How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing
short statements or sentences. truth from opinion?
Opinion – comprised of statements which not only
give facts but also provide conclusions or
perspectives regarding on a certain matter.
Conclusion – judgement based on certain facts. Man – general term commonly used to refer the
entire human race. Other related terms include
Beliefs – statements that express convictions that
humanity, mankind, and humankind.
are not easily and clearly explained by facts.
The human person is defined by a deeper
Explanations – statements that assume the claim
awareness which is driven by rationality or human
to be true and provide reasons why the statement
thought.
is true.
Interiority – the ability of the person to experience
Arguments – series of statements that provide
an “inner world” that is define by personal
reasons to convince reader or listener that a claim
thoughts and ideas.
or opinion is truthful. Logic is the branch of
philosophy that deals with the analysis of Self-Determination – the capability of persons to
arguments. make choices and decisions based on their own
preferences, monitor and regulate their actions,
Fallacies – arguments based on faulty reasoning.
and be goal-oriented and self- directed.
Bias – tendencies or influences that affect views of
Free Will – enables a person to do actions
people.
whenever we want to and makes self-
THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIES SPIRIT determination possible.
Consequence – the result or effect of an action or Human action is an important aspect of the person
condition. that many philosophers consider human action as a
way to reveal a person’s true nature.
Morality – goodness or badness of an act.
Human – refers to a man as a species – Homo Embodiment – enables us to do and experience all
sapiens sapiens or modern human beings. the things that make us human persons.
Human being – used to distinguish man from other Transcendence – the ability to surpass limits and
animals. an important trait that distinguishes human from
other beings.
Person – generally refers to a human being granted
recognition of certain rights, protection, Environmental Philosophy/Environmental Ethics –
responsibilities, and dignity, above all. Philosophers studies the moral relationship of human beings
refer to human person as the totality of an with the environment and its non-human contents.
individual, possessing awareness, self-
3 Major Views between the relationship of
determination, and the capacity to interact with
humanity and environment
others and with himself/herself.
Anthropocentrism – significant role of humankind
Personhood – refers to state of being a person.
in the world and considers nature as the means by
Human Nature – refers to the characteristics that which humans are able to meet their needs and
distinguish human from all other creatures. These survive. This view believes that humans are the
traits are assumed to arise independent of the most important species on the planet and they are
influence of culture and society. Example free to transform nature and use its resources.
characteristics include thinking, feeling, and acting.
Biocentrism – believes that humans are not only
These traits are considered to form the essence of
significant species on planet and that all organisms
humanity and without them an individual may not
have inherent value and should be protected. This
be considered a human person.
view drives the activities of humane organizations
Self-Awareness – first trait that defines a person. that advocate the ethical treatments of animals.
Refers to the person having a clear perception of
Ecocentrism – places great value on ecosystems
oneself, including his or her thoughts, emotions,
and biological communities. This view believes that
identity, and actions.
humankind is a part of a greater biological system
Self – the person who is actively aware that he or or community and that we have significant role as
she is perceiving and experiencing reality. stewards or guardians of nature.
Externality – capability to reach out and interact Disorder – can be brought about by sudden
with others and the world. changes in nature. It could be natural calamities or
human activities.
Dignity – innate right to be valued and respected.
The inherent value of a person which cannot be Environmentalism – this perspective advocates to
expressed in quantifiable terms. address the growing environmental problems.

Spirit – an intangible element which enables us to Environmental Ethics – this is a moral approach
exercise thought, possess awareness, interiority, that analyzes the relationship between humans
and the capacity to reach out to the outside world and the environment. It also discusses
and other persons. environmental problems caused by human
activities and social issues that impact the
The human person is an embodied spirit. environment. Serve as a basis for reflecting on how
our actions show our regard for nature. become Increasingly influenced by environmental
concerns. Environmental aesthetics began in the
twentieth century, concerned primarily with
Environmental ethics emerged in the 1970s,
natural beauty in the context of maintaining order
advocating human responsibility and action with
and balance in the environment. For its adherents,
regard to environmental issues. Its main ideas are
knowledge about nature will not only enable
the following
humans to appreciate nature's innate beauty but
will also help them relate more effectively with
All nonhuman elements of the world, including
the environment.
animals and natural resources, have Intrinsic value
and should be preserved. Significant social movements that were inspired
by increased environmental awareness include
The preservation of the environment will benefit the environmental protection and conservation
humans by providing for the needs of present and movement, animal rights, and green politics.
future generations Activism and Increased organized action are
indications of the growing awareness of
Humankind has a responsibility to safeguard the environmentalism in today's society.
planet as stewards of creation Environmentalism has also become an important
issue in international politics as governments and
Environmental ethics has resulted in the international organizations have devoted efforts
development of varied views: to discuss environmental issues and formulate
plans to address them. Significant developments
Social ecology applies an ecological and ethical
include the signing of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997,
approach in analyzing society, and sees a
where various nations committed to reduce their
relationship between social problems and
greenhouse gas emissions in order to curb global
environmental problems Society should therefore,
warming. The celebration of Earth Day, first
Implement changes in order to address issues
instituted in 1970, is a global effort to raise
regarding the environment.
awareness of environmental issues and inspire
action among communities
Concepts such as climate ethics and climate
justice arose from the growing concern with Sustainability/Sustainable Development – this
climate change, and consider it a significant concept focuses on reconciling human activities
ethical, social, end political issue. These views and economic development with the protection of
were greatly influenced by the concept of the environment.
environmental justice, which refers to the fair
3 Major Principles of Sustainability
distribution of environmental benefits, as well as
the burden of meeting environmental challenges. Environmental Integrity – refers to maintaining the
Advocates of environmental justice emphasize state of the environment. This means that human
equity and the meaningful involvement of activities should not unduly disrupt the ecosystems
communities and governments in addressing and human communities located in the area.
environmental challenges, and in planning and
Economic Efficiency – refers to prudence in
implementing environmental policies
decision-making regarding the use of resources to
ensure that there is minimum to zero waste.
Another perspective in environmental awareness
is environmental aesthetics, which originally Equity – demands what we use our natural
focused on concepts of beauty in nature, but has resources in such a manner that these are
conserved so that the next generation will be able Frugality – being thrifty with the use of one’s
to use them. resources
Prudence – the ability to regulate one’s actions and
behavior.

Fallacy Characteristics Example

Ad hominem Attacking the person presenting an argument “Of course he believes that the government is
instead of the argument itself flawed, he is a rebel and a communist!”
Appeal to force Using the threat of force or an undesirable “If this peace agreement will not be signed by the
event to advance an argument government, then we will have no recourse but to
go to war.”
Appeal to Using emotions such as pity or sympathy “All these charges are baseless; this is just plain
emotion harassment - can’t you see how this is affecting my
family?”
Appeal to the The idea is presented as acceptable because “Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you
popular a lot of people accept it should go find one!”
Appeal to The idea is acceptable because it has been “Marriage should be between a man and a woman.
tradition true for a long time It has been so for a long time in this country; it
should remain so today and in the future.”
Begging the Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is “I have right to free speech, therefor you cannot
question true; also known as “circular argument” stop me from talking.”
Cause-and- Assuming a “cause-and-effect” relationship “Ever since you bought that sweater, everything
effect between unrelated events has been going wrong in your life. You should get
rid of it.”
Fallacy of Assuming that what is true of a part is true “These cases of robbery in this district have
composition for the whole convinced me that the city has become a den of
thieves and criminals.”
Fallacy of Assuming that was is true for the whole is “You come from a family of doctors and
division true for its parts intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this
course!”

Bias Characteristic Example

Correspondence bias or Tendency to judge a person’s personality by “These soldiers who fought in the
attribution effect his/her actions, without regard for external war are all bloodthirsty murderers!”
factors or influences
Confirmation bias Tendency to look for and reality accept “How can I accept his view that there
information which fits one’s own beliefs or is no God? I am a Christian!”
views and to reject ideas or views that go
against it
Framing Focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while “Preliminary evidence has still not
ignoring other aspects pointed out the actual cause of the
plane crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the possibility
of pilot error.”
Hindsight The tendency to see past events as predictable, “Magellan’s assault on Mactan Island
or to ascribe a pattern to historical events was a foolhardy venture, made by an
overconfident, careless man who
underestimated the valor of the
native Filipinos.”
Conflict of interest A person or group is connected to or has a “As the daughter of the accused, I
vested interest in the issue being discussed believe I have the right to express my
opinion on the issue of his alleged
corrupt practices.”
Cultural bias Analyzing an event or issue based on one’s “I do not agree with this western
cultural standard practice of placing aged parents in
retirement homes. We Filipinos take
care of our family members.”