sensors

Review
Magneto-Mechano-Electric (MME) Composite Devices for
Energy Harvesting and Magnetic Field Sensing Applications
Srinivas Pattipaka 1,† , Jaewon Jeong 2,† , Hyunsu Choi 3 , Jungho Ryu 4, * and Geon-Tae Hwang 3, *

1 Department of Physics (H&S), Vardhaman College of Engineering, Shamshabad 501218, India;

[email protected]
2 Korea Institute of Materials Science (KIMS), Changwon 51508, Korea; [email protected]
3 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pukyong National University, 45, Yongso-ro, Nam-gu,
Busan 48513, Korea; [email protected]
4 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea
* Correspondence: [email protected] (J.R.); [email protected] (G.-T.H.)
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Magneto-mechano-electric (MME) composite devices have been used in energy harvesting
and magnetic field sensing applications due to their advantages including their high-performance,
simple structure, and stable properties. Recently developed MME devices can convert stray magnetic
fields into electric signals, thus generating an output power of over 50 mW and detecting ultra-tiny
magnetic fields below pT. These inherent outstanding properties of MME devices can enable the
development of not only self-powered energy harvesters for internet of thing (IoT) systems but
also ultra-sensitive magnetic field sensors for diagnosis of human bio-magnetism or others. This
manuscript provides a brief overview of recently reported high-performance MME devices for energy
harvesting and magnetic sensing applications.

Citation: Pattipaka, S.; Jeong, J.; Choi,

Keywords: magneto-mechano-electric conversion; energy harvesting; magnetic field sensor;
H.; Ryu, J.; Hwang, G.-T. self-powered devices
Magneto-Mechano-Electric (MME)
Composite Devices for Energy
Harvesting and Magnetic Field
Sensing Applications. Sensors 2022, 1. Introduction
22, 5723. https://doi.org/10.3390/ The multifunctional properties of magnetoelectric (ME) materials could enable the
s22155723
demonstration of novel electronic devices for energy harvesting and magnetic sensing
Academic Editor: Fabio Viola applications. In ME materials, coupling phenomena occur between the magnetic and
electric properties, which facilitate manipulation of dielectric polarization by a magnetic
Received: 23 June 2022
field and the control of magnetization by an electric field [1]. Single-phase ME materials
Accepted: 28 July 2022
are isotropic compounds and chemically homogeneous with an intrinsic ME coupling
Published: 30 July 2022
effect in addition to the co-existence of long-range ordered electric dipoles and magnetic
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral moments [2]. Even though the coupling between polar and magnetic sublattices in the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in single ME phase would be ideal for the various applications, most single-phase materials
published maps and institutional affil- have exhibited weak ME coupling performance at room temperature owing to the mutual
iations. exclusion of ferroelectricity and ferromagnetism at room temperature [3].
ME composites are composed of physically separated electric and magnetic order
materials, which present ME coupling performance with orders of magnitude larger than
single phase ME materials at room temperature [4]. The working mechanisms of ME com-
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
posites have been mainly reported as (i) mechanical strain-based magneto-mechano-electric
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
(MME) conversion, (ii) spin exchange, and (iii) charge carrier [5]. Among these, mechanical
This article is an open access article
strain-driven MME conversion, the focus of this review, has been mostly investigated by
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
many research teams, whereas the studies of the other two working mechanisms are still in
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
the early stages of development.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ MME composite devices have been investigated based on combinations of various
4.0/). energy conversion principles such as piezoelectric, triboelectric, and magnetostriction

Sensors 2022, 22, 5723. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155723 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 2 of 21

effects [6,7]. When an external magnetic field is applied to an MME device, a mechanical
deformation or vibration induced from the magnetostrictive or magnet material is delivered
into the piezoelectric or triboelectric material, thus resulting in the generation of electric
potential and charges as shown in Figure 1 [8]. The use of MME devices for energy
harvesting and magnetic field sensing applications has been actively reported due to their
advantages (e.g., energy conversion, output signal, small size, and stable properties) [9,10].

Figure 1. Operation mechanism of magneto-mechano-electric conversion.

Internet of Things (IoT) sensors will play a key role in the era of the 4th industrial
revolution to collect information, analyze this information, and execute an action to enable
closely connected automatic systems related to public safety, healthcare, industrial man-
ufacturing, and environmental monitoring [11,12]. Nevertheless, the practical utilization
of IoT systems including multifunctional sensors, management circuits, and data loggers
in any place is significantly restricted due to the difficulty in securing suitable electric
power [13]. For instance, the embedment of capacity-limited batteries in billions of future
IoT sensors may be impossible due to the huge labor requirement as well as economic
cost to maintain the wireless electronic systems [14]. In this regard, MME conversion
devices could be exploited as energy harvesters to actualize self-powered, sustainable,
and maintenance-free IoT applications [15]. MME generators based on stray magnetic
fields are a promising candidate to demonstrate self-powered IoT systems since MME
generators can continuously convert electric energy from alternating current (AC) stray
magnetic fields (typically less than 10 Oe) at a fixed frequency of 50 or 60 Hz induced by
ubiquitously installed commercial power cables such as electric transmission lines, and
cables in factories, buildings, and various other infrastructures [6].
On the other hand, ultra-sensitive magnetic field sensors that enable detection at a
sub-pT level have won attention for biomedical magnetic applications such as magneto-
cardiography (MCG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) to perform diagnosis of medical
diseases related to the human heart and brain [16]. The living organs generally generate
a very tiny AC magnetic field below 10 pT (e.g., 10 pT on a heart, 10 fT on a nervous
system, and 100 fT on a brain) with a relatively low frequency range up to 1 kHz [17,18].
The state-of-the-art ultra-sensitive magnetometers that allow for the detection of a sub-pT
range are mainly based on superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) with
superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions [19]. However, the SQUID system
inevitably requires a liquid-helium coolant for cryogenic superconducting, which increases
the volume of SQUID and its production cost, thus significantly restricting the expansion
of SQUID for general clinical utilization [20]. Various research teams in the world have
investigated MME composite sensors since they present the potential for detecting the
pT-range ultra-low magnetic field due to their extraordinary magnetic sensitivity at room
temperature with benefits including their simple structure, low cost, and high magnetic
directivity [21–23].
This paper provides a brief overview of recent progress made in the area of MME
composite devices for energy harvesting and magnetic sensing applications reported by
our research teams. In particular, high-performance MME generators and sensors based
on various advanced materials and device structures such as anisotropic piezoelectric
single crystal Pb(Mg1/3 Nb2/3 )O3 -Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 (PMN-PZT), textured magnetostrictive Fe-Ga
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 3 of 21

alloy, nanostructured triboelectric polymer films, magnetic field concentrator, hybridized

multiple energy conversion structure, etc. are discussed.

2. High-Performance MME Composite Devices for Energy Harvesting and Magnetic

Field Sensing Applications
2.1. Piezoelectric Single-Crystal Crystallographic Orientation for MME Harvesting
The working principle of the conventional MME composite generator composed of
piezoelectric and magnetostriction materials is explained in detail. The MME generator
placed in a location subject to an external magnetic field induces strain in the magne-
tostrictive layer by magnetostriction effect (magneto-mechano coupling), and the strain
is transferred to the piezoelectric layer which results in electric displacement or dielec-
tric polarization by a direct piezoelectric effect (mechano-electric coupling) [3,24,25]. The
sequential interaction process of the MME generator is shown in Figure 2a. The piezoelec-
tric materials used for MME generators in cantilever type structures should have a high
transverse piezoelectric effect to achieve higher power density, and this can be achieved
by poling (electrically) these materials in the thickness direction due to bending motion
resulting from the piezoelectric effect (d31 or d32 mode). The piezoelectric charge/strain
coefficient dij notation in crystallographic orientation can be understood from the IEEE
standard [26].

Figure 2. (a) Schematic diagram of energy transfer process in MME generator with ME composites.
(b) Schematic diagram of crystallographic orientations of piezoelectric single crystal fibers used in
ME composites. (c) Schematic diagram of fabrication steps for the ME composite (d) Photocopy of
designed MME generator with Nd proof of mass. Reproduced with permission [6].
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 4 of 21

Single crystal piezoelectric materials show an excellent piezoelectric response due

to their uniform dipole alignment. Single crystal Pb(Mg1/3 Nb2/3 )O3 –PbTiO3 (PMN–PT)
and PMN–PZT are well-known relaxor piezoelectric materials that exhibit a high d33
(>2000 pC/N) and a high electromechanical coupling factor k33 (>92%) in <001> orienta-
tions with a rhombohedral structure near the morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) [27–29].
The improved piezoelectric responses of rhombohedral crystals with <001> orientation are
attributed to their piezoelectric anisotropy and engineered domain states, which allow for
the rotation of <111> polarization toward the <001> direction [27,29]. The enhancement
in piezoelectric properties of these single crystals strongly depends on the composition of
MPB, crystallographic orientation, and rotation of polarization [30]. These findings suggest
that the fabrication of ME composites with particularly oriented single crystals is a good
approach for maximizing ME coupling [24,31–33].
Based on this concept, Ryu et al. fabricated a high-performance MME generator
embedded with PMN-PZT piezoelectric single crystal by employing the piezoelectric d32
mode [6]. Various synthesis methods are used for the fabrication of MME generators. The
solid state single crystal growth method was used to grow PMN-PZT piezoelectric single
crystal with rhombohedral phase. Toxic metal lead (Pb) is hazardous to human health and
non-eco-friendly, especially considering this issue with regard to IoT sensor applications in
environmental monitoring, biomedical field, etc. [34,35]. These PMN-PZT single crystals are
limited in their practical application due to their rigidity and brittleness. To avoid this issue,
a high performance flexible piezoelectric single crystal fiber composite (SFC) was fabricated
for MME generators as illustrated in Figure 2b. For the fabrication of ME laminates, the SFC
was bonded with high purity magnetostrictive Ni plate by thermal cure epoxy resin. The
cantilever type structure is considered promising for MME generators at low frequencies
due to its simple design, flexibility, the tunability of its resonance frequency, and higher
strain transfer. Therefore, the cantilever structure MME generator was designed with
piezoelectric SFC, magnetostrictive Ni-plate, and Nd magnetic proof of mass, as shown
in Figure 2c,d. The Nd magnets generates magnetic torque in the cantilever structure
with clockwise and counterclockwise directions under the AC magnetic field, which could
maximize the mechanical vibration of cantilever beam during the MME operation. The
magnet as presented in Figure 3 can generate upward magnetic field (Bmagnet ), and it could
be supposed that a virtual current loop (Iloop ) is flowed with direction of counterclockwise
in the mass magnet. When an external AC magnetic field (Bexternal ) is induced from the right
into left, the forces (F) of opposite direction could be applied on the two length sides of mass
magnet by Fleming’s left-hand rule. The generated opposites forces on the two length sides
of mass magnet make counterclockwise torque motion, which could derive mechanical up
bending motion of cantilever structure. Meanwhile, the direction of external AC magnetic
field is changed from the left into right, which could make mechanical clockwise torque
from the magnet. As a result, the external AC magnetic field enables repeated up and down
mechanical bending vibrations of the cantilever beam.
The energy harvesting performance of the very first MME generator was reported in
2015. In this report, the MME with a cantilever structure is tested at resonance frequency in
the absence of a direct current (DC) magnetic field. Further, it is tested in the presence of
an AC magnetic field (160 µT at a resonance frequency of 60 Hz) generated by Helmholtz
coils as shown in Figure 4a. The generated voltages are found to be peak-to-peak voltage
(Vpp ) signals of 6.5, 3.4, and 9.5 V for <001>-d31 , <011>-d31 , and <011>-d32 , respectively
(Figure 4b). The anisotropic <011> SFC with d32 mode has much higher energy generation
performance than the <001>-d31 , and <011>-d31 modes. Figure 4c shows the rectified and
charged voltage in a 10 µF capacitor as a function of load resistance. The <011> SFC with
d32 mode exhibits a larger voltage response than other modes. The <011> SFC with d32
mode presents nearly three-fold enhancement (−1850 pC/N) relative to <011>-d31 SFC
(599 pC/N). In addition, a <011>-d32 SFC based MME generator with an applied magnetic
field of 500 µT at 60Hz turned on 35 high intensity LEDs (Figure 4d). The results of
<011>-d32 PMN-PZT piezoelectric SFC based MME generator is feasible as a ubiquitous
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 5 of 21

power source for low power portable electric devises (wireless sensor networks and wireless
charging systems) by harvesting energy from a living environment.

Figure 3. Schematic for mechanism of mechanical vibration on MME cantilever with counterclockwise
and clockwise toque on mass magnets under external AC magnetic field.

Figure 4. (a) Schematic diagram of MME generator measurement setup. (b) Output voltage response
from MME generator embedded with <011> SFC in d32 mode under 160 µT and 60 Hz. (c) Rectified
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 6 of 21

voltage as a function of load resistance for various orientations with modes. (d) A photograph
of 35 LEDs with turn on/off frequency of 1 Hz using the power harvested from MME generator.
Reproduced with permission [6].

2.2. Effect of Dielectric and Mechanical Loss Factors on MME Harvesting

A variety of figures of merit (FOMs) have been developed to emphasize the selection
of piezoelectric materials for energy harvesting applications. The formulas of FOMs of
harvesting performance in piezoelectric-based energy harvesters are given by the following
equations [6,36].
FOM = dij × gij (1)

d2ij
FOMij = (2)
ε Tij

where dij is the piezoelectric charge coefficient, gij is the piezoelectric voltage coefficient, and
εij is the dielectric permittivity under applied stress T. However, earlier studies reported
that the FOMs do not properly explain the output performance of these energy harvesters
due to the nonlinear behavior of the piezoelectric materials. Their nonlinear behavior is
related to the dielectric and mechanical losses, which result in the degradation of the energy
harvester performance [37]. To overcome this issue, many research groups have focused
on low-loss piezoelectric single crystals to enhance the energy harvesting performance for
MME generators [8,38,39]. MME generators embedded with various piezoelectric single
crystals such as high-loss PMN-PZT, medium-loss PMN-PZT, and low-loss PMN-PZT
were fabricated and designed [8]. The fabrication methods of these MME generators are
similar to the above mentioned in Section 2.1. Figure 5a shows the voltage response as a
function of time for various MME generators and tested at an AC magnetic field of 700 µT
at 60 Hz. The low-loss PMN-PZT MME generator presents a higher maximum Vpp of 94 V
than high-loss (Vpp = 30 V) and medium-loss (Vpp = 42 V) generators. This behavior is
attributed to the fact that the magnetoelectric response of the device is dependent on the
harvesting voltage as shown in Figure 5b. Therefore, the MME generator embedded with
low-loss PMN–PZT has higher harvesting output performance as compared to the other
two generators.
Based on this concept, a self-powered electronic circuit system is constructed for
charging a mobile phone battery. The system consists of an MME generator, bridge full-
wave rectifier, supercapacitor, and DC–DC converter, as illustrated in Figure 5c. The 2.2 mF
supercapacitor was fully charged (Vmax = 20 V and Emax = 440 mJ) within 7 min by a
low-loss PMN-PZT MME generator, whereas high-loss and medium-loss PMN-PZT MME
generators charge the capacitor up to 14 and 17 V (Emax = 215 and 318 mJ), respectively,
as shown in Figure 5d. The energy harvesting performance of the MME generator greatly
improved using a low-loss PMN-PZT SCF due to the reduction of energy losses during
energy transformations. In addition, the low-loss piezoelectric material plays a critical
key role in producing electricity efficiently. These results confirmed that the self-powered
electronic circuit system can store electrical energy from the MME generator and is able
to charge a mobile phone battery (Figure 5e), switch on high intensity LEDs, and also run
electric fan motor without applying any external source.

2.3. The Effect of Texturing of Magnetostrictive Phase O1n the Mme Harvesting Performance
Piezoelectric single crystal and magnetostrictive Ni layer embedded MME genera-
tors display electrical output power on the order of a hundred µW under a weak mag-
netic field [6,8,40,41]. The performance of MME generators is enhanced due to the high
anisotropic piezoelectric response (d32 mode) of SFC. However, the MME generator out-
put power has been limited by the magnetostrictive Ni layer owing to its relatively low
piezomagnetic coefficient. To address this issue, textured magnetostrictive materials can be
used in MME composites to improve the harvesting performance. Terfenol-D (chemical
formula: Tb0.3 Dy0.7 Fe2 ) is a well-known magnetostrictive material that displays a larger
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 7 of 21

magnetostriction of ~2000 ppm under magnetic field of 1 kOe at room temperature [42].
Nevertheless, the presence of a critical rare-earth element (Tb), its brittle nature, and high
magnetic bias field for optimal performance have prevented Terfenol-D being used in
MME composites. A Fe–Ga alloy with an outstanding magnetostriction property and low
production cost displays a larger magnetostriction of ~400 ppm along <100> direction
under low magnetic field of ~200 Oe, which is useful for the operation of MME devices
under a low magnetic field [43].

Figure 5. (a) Generated voltage from signals from high−loss, medium loss, and low−loss based
MME generators. (b) ME voltage coefficient (αME ) as a function of HAC driving frequency for
various MME generators. (c) Schematic diagram of self-powered electric system for charging mobile
phone battery using MME generator. (d) The charging response in 2.2 mF supercapacitor for various
generators. (e) Off and on state charging phone battery. Reproduced with permission [8].
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 8 of 21

The textured magnetostrictive Fe-Ga alloy in MME composites exhibits excellent

magnetostriction properties [44]. The Fe-Ga alloy with good ductility and magneto-
mechanical coupling was synthesized into thin sheets using a thermo-mechanical pro-
cessing technique with multi-stage rolling and annealing process (Figure 6(ai)). The
fabrication process of the MME generator containing a <100> Fe-Ga alloy sheet and
an isotropic Mn-doped piezoelectric PMN-PZT SFC is depicted in Figure 6(aii). The
cantilever structured MME generator was designed using Mn-doped PMN-PZT piezo-
electric SFC and <100> textured magnetostrictive Fe-Ga sheet with Nd magnetic proof
mass. The textured Fe-Ga based MME generator exhibits maximum output VPP of 100
V at the resonance frequency of 100 Hz and αME of 1330 V/cm·Oe as compared to the
conventional Ni-based MME generator (VPP of 59 V and αME of 781 V/cm·Oe), as shown
in Figure 6b,c. The cantilever type MME generators normally have very narrow working
frequency range (bandwidth) since it has a fixed resonance frequency which is defined by
the materials, dimension of device, mass magnet, etc [45]. The αME value was noticeably
decreased into ~1200 V/cm·Oe at ~99.5/~100.5 Hz and ~1000 V/cm·Oe at ~99/~101 Hz.
Therefore, the MME composite device can generate the maximum output performance at
a specific resonance frequency. Now many research teams have explored wide bandwidth
MME composite generators with movable proof mass which could automatically move
the position of proof mass to minutely regulate the mechanical resonance frequency
of MME generator to match the frequency of the external AC magnetic field. The AC
signal generated from the Fe-Ga based MME generator is converted into a DC signal
for a demonstration of standalone powered electronic devices. The four diodes are nor-
mally utilized to construct the full-wave bridge rectifying circuit. The rectified voltage
is saturated (VDC = 76.5 V) at 10 MΩ, whereas the rectified current is decreased from
short-circuit current (IDC = 178 µA) with load resistance (Figure 6(di)). A maximum
DC output power of 3.86 mW and corresponding power density of 3.22 mW/cm3 are
obtained at a load resistance of 575 kΩ, as shown in Figure 6(dii). The AC output power
of MME composite was 4.6 mW, which was decreased into 3.86 mW after the rectifying
process. Therefore, the efficiency of AC-DC rectification was 83.9% in this work. The high
output energy generation in the present structure is due to the coupling between strong
anisotropic response of piezoelectric SCF and highly textured Fe-Ga magnetostrictive al-
loy. The energy harvesting response of the textured Fe-Ga based MME generator is much
higher compared to the previously reported Ni/low-loss PMN-PZT and Ni/PMN-PZT
based MME generators [6,8].
Based on the above concept, a standalone-powered wireless sensor system is con-
structed, which consists of a textured Fe-Ga embedded MME generator, storage capacitor
(2.2 mF), power management circuit, PC monitoring, and sensor module used for data
recording and transmission modes as presented in Figure 6e. This MME generator charges
the capacitor up to 3 V in 25 s and operates a wireless sensor for data recording and
transmission (Figure 6f). The standalone-powered wireless sensor system which can store
electric energy from textured Fe-Ga embedded MME generator, is capable of supplying suf-
ficient standalone energy for operating a wireless sensor network system without applying
any power source.

2.4. Magnetic Flux Concentration Effect on Energy MME Harvesting Performance

The energy harvesting performance of MME composite devises was significantly
improved due to the coupling between high anisotropic piezoelectric response of SFC
and textured Fe-Ga magnetostrictive alloy. However, the Fe-Ga based MME generator
output power has been limited by relatively high permeability of Fe-Ga alloy due in-
duction of stronger eddy currents even at low frequencies, thereby reducing some of
the magnetic flux density change, which may reduce power output. Energy harvesting
from stray magnetic fields is promising for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and IoT
systems [3,10,41,46–48]. It is known that the magnetic flux reaching to the MME generator
is very low as compared to the total stray magnetic field due to it spreading in the redial
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 9 of 21

direction around power transmission cables. The performance of MME generators has
been continually improved by adopting novel materials, methods, device structures,
etc. [7,15,33,49–52]. A strong magnetic material with higher permeability, known as a
magnetic flux concentrator (MFC), can be used to concentrate the magnetic flux on the
MME generator.

Figure 6. (a) (i) Schematic diagram of synthesis process of textured Fe−Ga. (a) (ii) fabrication steps
for the ME composite. (b) Generated voltage signals from MME generators embedded with textured
Fe−Ga (i) and Ni (ii) layers measured at different frequencies (c) ME voltage coefficient (αME ) as
a function of HAC driving frequency. (d) Rectified DC voltage/current signals (i) and DC output
power (ii) of Fe−Ga MME generator under 700 µT at 60 Hz. (e) Energy harvesting performance
of standalone-powered wireless sensor system using MME generator (f) Charging and discharging
response of storage capacitor. Reproduced with permission [44].

In 2020, a MME generator based on MFC concept was reported by Song H. et al. [53].
For the fabrication of MME generator, the piezoelectric SFC (Mn-doped PMN-PZ-PT in
<011> orientation with d32 mode) was bonded with magnetostrictive Ni layer using epoxy
resin. Four pieces of Nd magnets were attached as a proof mass for the optimization
point of cantilever structure. After optimization of the geometric structure of the MME
generator, the MFC material, design parameter, and 3D location were optimized to exam-
ine MFC effect on MME generator using theoretical simulation model. These simulated
results confirm that a material with higher permeability (µr ≥ 600) could be used for
the MFC. Hence, Ni with µr of 600 is chosen as the MFC material [54]. Further, design
parameters such as the shape (square: 10 mm × 10 mm), aspect ratio, and number of
layers (10 with 2.5 mm thickness) are optimized to obtain a higher response from the MFC
(Figure 7a). The output performance of the MME generator is tested with the optimized
MFC inside a Helmholtz coil, as shown in Figure 7b. The magnetostrictive layer with
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 10 of 21

MFC (0.691 T, displayed in thick red) presents a 1.5 times larger magnetic flux density
distribution than without the MFC (0.465 T, displayed in yellow), as depicted in Figure 7c.
The 3D location of the MFC at different distances from the MME generator is optimized
by experimental and theoretical simulations to obtain a higher output power response for
a standalone powered device. The maximum vibration amplitude of 6.23 mm is found
while moving the MFC away from MME cantilever in the upward direction, which is
54% higher compared to the case without the MFC, as shown in Figure 7d. The higher
vibration amplitude is attributed to the magnetic flux concentration on MME generator.

Figure 7. (a) Schematic diagram of MFC concentrating stray magnetic field on MME generator
with shape, material, layers, and aspect ratio. (b) Measurement set-up of MME generator with
MFC (c) Magnetic flux density distribution in magnetostrictive layer of MME generator with MFC
(i) and without MFC (ii). (d) Optimization of MFC location over thickness of MME generator under
8 Oe. (e) Photocopy of energy harvesting from a power cable at substation using MFC harvested
module. (f) Harvested energy response at optimum load resistance of 100 kΩ with and without MFC.
Reproduced with permission [53].

A self-powered wireless environmental monitoring module is constructed and tested

under an AC magnetic field of 22 Oe at 60 Hz. It consists of MME generator, MFC, IoT
sensor, and power management circuit, and then the system installed at power cable in a
substation (Figure 7e). The output energy of the MME generator with the MFC structure
presents higher power (5.34 mW) than that without the MFC (2.55 mW), as depicted in
Figure 7f. The output power significantly enhanced nearly twice from MME generator
by adopting novel method concentrating on magnetic flux around MME generator by
tailoring MFC structure including material, shape, aspect ratio, number of layers, and 3D
location of MFC. The self-powered wireless environmental monitoring module consisting
of MME generator with MFC installed at power station can store electric energy from AC
magnetic fields around power transmission cables and it is sufficient to operate a wireless
temperature and humidity sensors.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 11 of 21

2.5. Hybridization of Piezoelectric and Electromagnetic Induction Effects on MME Generator

Even though previously reported piezoelectric crystal-based MME generators pre-
sented RMS output power of a few mW level to operate simple IoT devices, this may
not be enough to operate high-power consumption (typically scores to hundreds of
mW) multifunctional IoT sensors with long range data connectivity that can collect
various environmental information such as humidity, light intensity, temperature, air
pressure, ultraviolet (UV) index, CO2 , volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sound level,
and magnetic field [55]. Thus, it is significantly desirable to fabricate a high-performance
MME generator with an output RMS power above 10 mW to demonstrate standalone
powered multifunctional IoT sensor systems. To improve the output energy of energy
harvesters, many research teams have explored hybridization of two or three energy con-
version mechanisms including piezoelectric, triboelectric, and electromagnetic induction
effects [56–58]. In this manner, a hybrid-type MME generator is a reasonable solution to
noticeably enhance the output power for operation of high-power consumption multi-
functional IoT sensors [41].
Figure 8a presents a conceptual illustration of a hybridized MME cantilever generator
composed of piezoelectric and electromagnetic induction parts [59]. For the fabrication of
the hybrid MME generator, a single crystal PMN-PZT SFC was bonded on a Ti cantilever
beam by epoxy adhesive, and NdFeB magnets were used as a magnetic tip mass. The
hybridization of the electromagnetic induction part with the piezoelectric part is simply
achieved by locating a Cu solenoid coil near the end of the magnets. To maximize
the output performance, the second harmonic bending resonance mode is adopted on
the hybridized MME generator, which provides the largest displacement of vibration
movement at the middle of the Ti cantilever. Figure 8(bi) shows the initial state of
the hybrid MME generator before harvesting operation. After the mid-region of the
cantilever structure is moved upward with the magnetic-induced clockwise force by the
external magnetic field, piezoelectric potential and electromagnetic induction current are
generated from the piezoelectric single crystal and Cu coil, respectively (Figure 8(bii)).
At the releasing state of the MME cantilever structure (Figure 8(biii)), the mid-region
of the Ti cantilever is moved downward with the magnetic-induced anticlockwise force
by the external magnetic field, which can derive electric energy generation by tensile
stress on the piezoelectric part and rotational movement of magnets near the solenoid
coil (Figure 8(biv)). In this work, the output power of the MME generator at the second
bending resonance mode is significantly higher compared to that of the first bending
resonance mode. To verify the benefit of the second harmonic mode at MME operation,
a theoretical COMSOL simulation was conducted, as shown in Figure 8c,d. For the
calculation, one end part of the MME cantilever was clamped and a magnet mass was
attached to the opposing part in a simplified 2D model. When the MME generator is
operated at the conventional first and second bending modes, the resonance frequencies
of the first and second modes are 13.3 and 119.5 Hz, respectively, which indicates that the
total number of periodic up and down movements of the second bending resonance mode
is 10 times higher than that of the first mode during the same time. Figure 8c,d present the
simulated movements of the piezoelectric MME cantilever structure and mass magnets at
the first and second resonance bending modes, respectively. The maximum RMS output
power of the piezoelectric phase at the second bending mode is 2.5 times higher compared
to the first bending mode in the simulated results, as shown in Figure 8(ciii). Likewise,
the maximum RMS output power of the electromagnetic induction part at the second
bending mode is 2.4 times higher compared to the 1st bending mode in the simulated
results, as shown in Figure 8(diii).
Figure 8(ei,ii) show the circuit configuration used to measure the RMS output power
of the coupled piezoelectric and electromagnetic induction parts with various external load
resistors and the real measurement results with the impedance matching condition. As a
result, the total RMS output power of the hybridized MME generator is 51.7 mW, which
is ~10 times higher than that of previously reported high-performance MME generators.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 12 of 21

Finally, a standalone-powered IoT environment sensing system is demonstrated by integra-

tion of the hybrid MME generator, a power management circuit, and a multi-functional
IoT sensor. The remarkable output RMS power from the hybrid MME generator facilitates
continuous operation of nine types of environmental sensors and subsequent wireless trans-
mission of the data to a receiver as shown in Figure 8f. This work is the first demonstration
of RMS output power from an MME generator exceeding 10 mW.

Figure 8. (a) Illustration of the hybridized MME generator. (b) Schematic illustration of the working
mechanism of hybrid MME generator composed of piezoelectric and electromagnetic induction parts.
Theoretical MME simulation results of the 1st and 2nd resonance bending modes for piezoelectric part
(c) and electromagnetic induction part (d). (e) Circuit configuration for the hybrid MME generator
to characterize RMS power with the impedance matching condition (i) and total RMS power of the
hybrid MME generator with the impedance matching condition (ii). (f) Snapshot images of IoT
monitoring system operated by hybrid MME generator. Reproduced with permission [59].

2.6. Magneto-Mechano-Triboelectric Generator (MMTEG)

As mentioned above, the MME generators have been conventionally demonstrated
with compositions of piezoelectric materials, magnetostriction materials, and mass magnets.
In particular, for the piezoelectric part, single crystal materials such as PMN-PT and
PMN-PZT with exceptionally outstanding piezoelectric properties was utilized in the
MME generator to achieve high performance. However, the costly and time-consuming
production process of a piezoelectric single crystal could be an obstacle to expand the
practical utilization of piezoelectric crystal-based MME generators [14]. Energy harvesting
materials by utilizing the triboelectrification effect is a promising candidate to substitute
piezoelectric materials in MME generators since they can convert mechanical vibration into
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 13 of 21

electric energy with simple, efficient, and inexpensive properties for future self-powered
IoT systems [60].
Figure 9a shows the setup image of a magneto-mechano-triboelectric generator (MMTEG)
inside the Helmholtz coil to measure the output performance by an induced AC magnetic
field [7]. The MMTEG is composed of a PFA (Perfluoroalkoxy alkanes) film, Ti cantilever,
Al foil, and proof mass magnets. The Al foil is placed above the PFA attached cantilever
structure to derive triboelectrification between the PFA film and Al foil by magnetic-induced
periodic mechanical contact vibrations. Figure 9b presents the operation mechanism of
MMTEG by adoption of the triboelectric effect and electrostatic induction with the up and
down vibrational movements of the cantilever structure under an external AC magnetic
field. From the initial state (Figure 9(bi)), the upward vibration of the cantilever structure
makes surface contact between the PFA film and Al foil by magnetic force of the magnets
under an external AC magnetic field, thus inducing the generation of positive charges on
the Al foil and negative charges on the surface of the PFA film, as shown in Figure 9(bii).
When the two surfaces are detached by the downward vibration, the opposite charges
on the Au electrode layer of the PFA film flow between the two triboelectric parts until a
fully released state of the cantilever structure as presented in Figure 9(biii,iv). The upward
vibration then reduces the gap distance between the Al foil and PFA film again, resulting
in opposite electron flow between the two triboelectric parts.

Figure 9. (a) Photograph image of MMTEG system installed inside Helmholtz coil. (b) Working mecha-
nism of MMTEG under AC magnetic field. (c) Open-circuit voltage signals from the nano−structured
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 14 of 21

and non-structured MMTEG devices. (d) Peak power values from the nano−structured and non-
structured MMTEG devices. (e) Charging and discharging curve to operate IoT sensor by MMTEG.
Reproduced with permission [7].

To increase the contact charging area to improve triboelectrification in MMTEG op-

eration, a complicated nano-structure is formed on the surface of the PFA film by a salt-
nanoparticle aerosol deposition process. To investigate the effect of nano-structures on the
MMTEG performance, open-circuit output voltage signals of nano-structured and non-
structured PFA films are measured under an external AC magnetic field of 7 Oe at 143.2 Hz.
The open-circuit Vpp signals of MMTEG devices with and without nano-structure reach up
to 708 V and 448 V, as shown in Figure 9c. Figure 9d shows the measured peak power of
MMTEGs with and without nano-structures by varying the external load resistances in a
range from 1 kΩ to 1 GΩ. The maximum peak power of the nano-structured MMTEG is
21.8 mW, which is 5.7 times higher than that of the non-structured device. To demonstrate a
self-powered IoT system, a 1 mF capacitor is charged up to 3.6 V by the output energy of the
nano-structured MMTEG within three minutes, and an IoT beacon device is subsequently
connected to the capacitor as shown in Figure 9e. The inset of Figure 9e presents the
continuous operation of an IoT sensor with a sensing interval of one second by electric
energy from the MMTEG.

2.7. MMTEG for Optogenetic Neuromodulation

Optogenetic neuromodulation technology has been widely explored globally to rem-
edy neurological diseases including Parkinsonism, somnipathy, and epileptic seizure [61,62].
To demonstrate an ideal optogenetic treatment, flexible microscale light-emitting diodes
(f-µLEDs) with chemical/humid/thermal stability, low-heating, and high-power efficiency
are considered an outstanding stimulation tool for freely moving animals [63]. Even though
an optogenetic system was successfully demonstrated in the form of an implantable de-
vice that includes an independent power source of battery, the restricted capacity of the
conventional battery could necessitate periodic replacement of the depleted battery every
~five years [64,65]. MMTEGs based on energy conversion of the ambient noise magnetic
field into electric energy are a strong candidate to demonstrate self-powered optogenetic
biomedical systems [66].
Figure 10a shows a schematic illustration of the MMTEG fabrication process and
its optogenetic application by turning on f-µLEDs. A copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticle
solution is spin-coated onto a triboelectric Nylon film as a heating amplifier under a flash
light photothermal annealing process, which causes thermal surface deformation of the
Nylon film to increase the surface area, as shown in Figure 10(ai). Figure 10(aii) shows
the morphology of the Nylon surface with a nanoscale bumpy texture and microscale
wrinkled structure after etching of CuO particles. Subsequently, a cantilever structured
MMTEG is fabricated by utilizing a flash-stamped Nylon film, Ti plate, Teflon film, and
NdFeB magnet mass as presented in Figure 10(aiii). By converting an AC magnetic field
into electric energy using the MMTEG, implanted f-µLEDs inside a mouse skull can be lit
up for optogenetic neuromodulation to induce artificial behavior change (Figure 10(aiv)).
To investigate the effect of the flash multiscale structure of the Nylon surface for triboelec-
tric energy conversion, the output performance of flash-stamped and pristine MMTEGs is
compared at an AC magnetic field of 7 Oe. The output open-circuit Vpp and short-circuit
current signals are measured as 870 V/145 µA for the multiscale-structured MMTEG
and 638 V/100 µA for the non-structured MMTEG, demonstrating that noticeable per-
formance enhancement of MMTEG is realized after the flash annealing process on the
Nylon film.
Figure 10b presents the experimental setup for powering the f-µLEDs using the flash-
enhanced MMTEG under a stray AC magnetic field of 2.1 Oe at 60 Hz induced by an
electric wire of a hairdryer. The MMTEG can generate open-circuit voltage and short-circuit
current signals of 237 V and 33 µA, respectively, under these conditions, which is enough
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 15 of 21

to continuously turn on the f-µLED device, as shown in Figure 10c. Figure 10d shows a
schematic illustration of self-powered optogenetic neuromodulation on a living mouse with
implanted f-µLEDs powering by MMTEG. Irradiation of the red light from the LED to the
modified cells of primary motor cortex M1, result in neural excitation to induce movement
of the mouse whisker. As a result, the self-powered optogenetic neuromodulation by the
MMTEG can derive noticeable whisker movement of the mouse, which is tracked by a
video capture system and image analysis program as shown in Figure 10(ei,ii). This result
indicates that the MMTEG under a tiny AC magnetic field could act as an energy source
for biomedical implantable devices by supplementing or replacing conventional batteries.

Figure 10. (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for MMTEG and its application for
optogenetic neuromodulation. (b) Photograph image of MMTEG to generate electric energy near
power cable of home appliance. (c) Photograph of f-µLED turning on by MMTEG. (d) Schematic
illustration of optogenetic neuromodulation under skull of mouse. (e) Video tracking point of
optogenetic neuromodulation (i) and whisker movement during the procedure (ii). Reproduced with
permission [66].
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 16 of 21

2.8. Ultra-Magnetic Field Sensitive MME Composite Enabled by Flash Photon Annealing
Although sensing of a tiny low-frequency AC magnetic field using MME composites
in resonance bending mode is challenging due to their high noise signal level (caused by
ambient vibrations), a MME composite can be utilized as an ultrasensitive AC magnetic
field sensor with improvement of material properties [67]. To achieve outstanding magnetic
detection performance, it is crucial to consider magneto-mechanical conversion properties
with magnetic and elastic losses of magnetostrictive materials at a resonance condition [10].
In particular, the magneto-mechanical losses could be reduced by enhancement of the
piezomagnetic properties and a mechanical quality factor of magnetostrictive materials via
nano-crystallization of phase [22].
Figure 11a illustrates the experimental fabrication process and benefit of surface
nano-crystallization of the amorphous FeBSi (Metglas) alloy through a flash photon an-
nealing technique [16]. Note that the conventional thermal annealing technique for nano-
crystallization of Metglas to minimize the energy losses normally causes a ductile-to-brittle
transition, which would be an obstacle during the device fabrication process as a result of
mechanical cracking of Metglas sheets. In contrast, flash photon irradiation on an amor-
phous Metglas sheet with a suitable high temperature condition and very short (~0.3 ms)
pulse duration could produce only a few nano-crystals (size below 10 nm) on the surface of
Metglas to enhance the magneto-mechanical properties such as magnetostriction and me-
chanical quality factor without significant brittleness. Figure 11b presents high-resolution
transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) and scanning microscope (SEM, the left top
inset) images of the Metglas surface to investigate the effect of flash photon annealing
on the microstructure. Due to the partial surface oxidation at the amorphous Metglas
surface by flash annealing, dark color zones are partially formed on the SEM image, and
nano-crystals with an average crystallite size of 10 nm appeared in the dark color area of the
flash photon annealed Metglas. By the nano-crystallization, a few annular-shaped fringes
with bright crystallite spots in the fast Fourier transform (FFT) patterns are appeared as
shown in the right bottom inset of Figure 11b.
The magnetostriction curves of flash photon annealed and non-annealed Metglas
laminations (six-layers) are measured at room temperature, as presented in Figure 11c.
The saturated magnetostriction values of the flash photon annealed and pristine Metglas
laminates are 30.2 ppm and 36.0 ppm, respectively, which correspond to longitudinal
piezomagnetic coefficients of 0.33 ppm and 0.42 ppm, respectively. This enhancement in
the piezomagnetic constant of the flash nano-crystallized Metglas is ascribed to (1) the
transformation of random alignment into a systematic alignment with the magnetization
direction and (2) the elimination of residual stress which usually impedes rotation of
magnetic nanodomains. Moreover, Metglas lamination after flash photon annealing
shows 26.8% higher mechanical quality factor with a 9% higher hardness value compared
to the pristine sample, which is beneficial to obtain outstanding magneto-mechano con-
version performance at a resonance condition. Figure 11d shows the device structure of a
bilayer MME laminate for an ultra-sensitive magnetic field sensor, which is composed of
single crystal PMN-PZT SFC and six-layer Metglas lamination. Finally, the AC magnetic
field detection performance of MME composites by flash annealed and pristine Metglas
sheets is investigated, as presented in Figure 11e. The flash photon annealed MME sensor
displayed a detection limit of 0.5 pT at the resonance frequency of 99.3 Hz, constituting
10-fold enhanced performance compared to the pristine MME sample (5 pT at 97.7 Hz).
This outstanding detection limit after flash photon annealing is a combined result of the
reduced resonance loss, improved magnetic sensitivity, and resistance to the ambient
vibrational noise of the flash-treated Metglas. The flash annealed MME composite is a po-
tential alternative to ultra-sensitive AC magnetic field sensors in the practical application
field to detect bio-magnetism and extremely low frequency signals that are hazardous
to humans.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 17 of 21

Figure 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the flash photon annealing process on Metglas sheet and
the expected property enhancement. (b) Microstructure analysis results on Metglas surface after
flash photon annealing. (c) Magnetostriction and piezomagnetic coefficient curves of flash annealed
and pristine Metglas laminations. (d) Schematic illustration of the Metglas lamination-based MME
magnetic field sensor. (e) Output voltage response signals of flash annealed and pristine MME
sensors by applying AC magnetic field. Reproduced with permission [16].

3. Conclusions
This paper has described several exciting high-performance MME composite devices
composed of piezoelectric, magnetostriction, triboelectric, and permanent magnet materials
that have been developed for energy harvesters and magnetic field sensors for IoT and bio-
medical applications. The MME composites can provide the conversion of stray magnetic
fields into an electric signal, and thus can be utilized as high-performance energy genera-
tors or ultra-sensitive magnetic sensors. In particular, MME composites with modification
of piezoelectric crystals and magnetostriction materials by tailoring the crystallographic
orientation or improving loss properties yield a noticeable increment of output power for
MME generators. Moreover, the adoption of a magnetic flux concentration structure, and
surface-modified triboelectric materials, or hybridization of multiple energy conversion
principles in the MME generators enables continuous operation of IoT sensors as well as
optogenetic neuromodulation without external energy sources. Even though the MME
composite generators cannot operate at ambient radio frequency (RF) electro-magnetic field,
they can operate at a relatively low frequency of <200 Hz due to their relatively low me-
chanical resonance frequency. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of output power, the MME
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 18 of 21

generators can generate electric power of mW-level, which is larger than the previously
reported RF energy harvesters (output power of µW-level) [68–70]. This technical devel-
opment could extend the application of MME generators as a permanent electric power
supply in self-powered IoT and implantable bio-medical devices to support or substitute
conventional batteries. Figure 12 gives a summary on the output power improvement of
MME composite generators since 2015. The RMS output power or average AC output
power generated from MME generators were used to compared the output performance.
The output power of MME composite generators has been gradually improved and re-
cently has achieved up to 50 mW, which is enough to operate multifunctional IoT sensors.
However, the output power should be increased above 100 mW for supply of electric
energy into environmental gas or chemical IoT sensors to expand the practical utilization
field of MME composite generators. The output performance of MME generator may be
enhanced by adoption of novel materials including magnetic shape memory alloys which
have outstanding mechanical deformation, strain, and response under external magnetic
field and mechanical force compared to the conventional magnetostrictive materials [71].
Another technical issue related to MME composite generator is the design of highly efficient
power management circuit to convert AC output into DC signal. Researches for advanced
electronic circuits including AC-DC rectifier, DC-DC converter, and energy storage unit are
therefore significantly required to improve the energy extracted from the MME generators
with minimizing energy loss.

Figure 12. Summary on the output power of MME composite generators since 2015. Copyright 2015,
2018, 2019, 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. Copyright 2016, 2022, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

As a magnetic field sensor, the MME composite shows very sensitive capability, even
permitting detection of a sub-pT range. This sensing performance is enabled by the short-
time flash photon annealing process on a magnetostrictive Metglas sheet to induce surface
nano-crystallization. This MME-based magnetic sensor demonstrates the potential use
of the MME composite sensor as a novel monitoring device for diagnosis of very weak
bio-magnetism. In order to directly detect the bio-magnetic field from human heart and
brain using the MME composites in the future, it would be necessary to acquire reliable
vital data through advanced signal processing methods including data sampling, noise
filtering, and signal amplification.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5723 19 of 21

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.-T.H. and J.R.; writing—original draft preparation, S.P.
and J.J.; writing—review and editing, G.-T.H. and J.R.; visualization, H.C.; supervision, G.-T.H. and
J.R.; project administration, G.-T.H. and J.R.; funding acquisition, G.-T.H., J.J. and J.R. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by NRF grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT)
(No. 2022R1A2C4001497, 2022R1F1A1073594, and 2021M3D1A204772412) and by the Pukyong
National University Research Fund in 2020 (CD20201549).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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