The University of Sydney

School of Mathematics and Statistics

Solutions to Tutorial Sheet, Week 2

MATH1014: Introduction to Linear Algebra Semester 2, 2021

Topics covered and aims

In lectures this week:

 Length of a vector, unit vectors
 Angle between vectors.
 Dot product.
 Cross product.
After completing this tutorial sheet you will be able to:
 compute the length of a vector, and find unit vectors;
 calculate the dot product, and understand its geometric significance;
 decide if vectors are perpendicular;
 calculate the cross product, and understand its geometric significance.

Statement of main definitions and theorems covered:

Length: The length of a vector

 
a
q
a= 1 2
in R is kak = a21 + a22 .
a2

The length of a vector

 
a1 q
3
a = a2 
 in R is kak = a21 + a22 + a23 .
a2

Unit vectors: The unit vector in the direction of a is

1
â = a.
kak

Dot product: The dot product of vectors

   
a1 b1
 a2   b2 
a =  ..  and b =  ..  is a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn .
   
. .
an bn

Note that kak2 = a · a.

Copyright © 2021 The University of Sydney 1

 Useful Fact: If θ is the angle between vectors a and b then
a·b
cos θ = .
kakkbk

Perpendicular Vectors: Nonzero vectors a and b are perpendicular (or orthogonal ) if the
angle between them is 90◦ . To test if given vectors are perpendicular, use the fact that nonzero
vectors a and b are perpendicular precisely if a · b = 0.

Cross Product: The cross product of vectors a and b in R3 is:

a1 b1

a2 b 3 − a3 b 2
 a2 b2
a × b = a3 b1 − a1 b3  a3 b3
a1 b 2 − a2 b 1 a1 b1
a2 b2

Useful Fact: The cross product a × b of two nonzero vectors a and b in R3 is perpendicular
to both a and b.

Main questions

1. Let P = (3, 1) and Q = (4, −2) be points in the xy-plane, and let O = (0, 0) be the origin.
−→ −→
(a) Write down the position vectors OP and OQ as column vectors, and also in terms of i and j.
   
−→ 3 −→ 4
Solution: OP = = 3i + j, OQ = = 4i − 2j
1 −2
−→
(b) Write down the displacement vector P Q as a column vector, and also in terms of i and j.
   
−→ 4−3 1
Solution: P Q = = = i − 3j
−2 − 1 −3
−→ −→
(c) Write down the coordinates of the point R such that OR = P Q.
 
−→ 1
Solution: If OR is the positon vector , then the point R is (1, −3).
−3
−→
(d) Find the length of P Q.
−→ √ √
Solution: kP Qk = 12 + 32 = 10

2. Given points A = (4, −1, 5) and B = (6, −1, −2) in space, find
−→ −−→
(a) the position vectors OA and OB as column vectors, and also in terms of i, j and k;
   
4 6
−→   −−→  
Solution: OA = −1 = 4i − j + 5k , OB = −1 = 6i − j − 2k .
5 −2

2
 −→
(b) the displacement vector AB as a column vector, and also in terms of i, j and k;
   
6−4 2
−→ 
Solution: AB = −1 − (−1) = 0  = 2i − 7k .
 
−2 − 5 −7
(c) the unit vector pointing from A towards B;
−→ p √
Solution: kABk = 2 2 + (−7)2 = 53, and so the unit vector pointing from A towards

2
1 1

B is √  0  or √ (2i − 7k) .
53 −7 53

(d) the unit vector pointing from B towards A.

Solution: The unit vector pointing from
 B towards A is simply the negative of the vector
2
1 1

found in part (c) – that is, − √  0  or − √ (2i − 7k) .
53 −7 53

3. Given that     
2 1 3
u = −1 , v = −2 , w =  0 ,
1 2 −1
find
(a) u · v
  
2 1
Solution: u · v = −1 · −2 = 2 × 1 + (−1) × (−2) + 1 × 2 = 6.
  
1 2
(b) u · w
   
2 3
Solution: u · w = −1 ·  0  = 2 × 3 + (−1) × 0 + 1 × (−1) = 5.
1 −1
(c) v · w
  
1 3
Solution: v · w = −2 ·  0  = 1 × 3 + (−2) × 0 + 2 × (−1) = 1.
2 −1
(d) u · u
  
2 2
Solution: u · u = −1 · −1 = 2 × 2 + (−1) × (−1) + 1 × 1 = 6.
  
1 1
(e) v · v
  
1 1
Solution: v · v = −2 · −2 = 1 × 1 + (−2) × (−2) + 2 × 2 = 9.
  
2 2
(f) w · w

  
3 3
Solution: w · w = 0 · 0  = 3 × 3 + 0 × 0 + (−1) × (−1) = 10.
  
−1 −1

3
 (g) kuk
p √
Solution: kuk = 22 + (−1)2 + 12 = 6.
(h) kvk
p
Solution: kvk = 12 + (−2)2 + 22 = 3.
(i) kwk
p √
Solution: kwk = 32 + (−1)2 = 10.
(j) u · (v + w)
   
2
4
Solution: u · v + w = −1  · −2  = 2 × 4 + (−1) × (−2) + 1 × 1 = 11.
1 1
(k) u · (v − w)
   

2 −2
Solution: u · v − w = −1 · −2 = 2 × (−2) + (−1) × (−2) + 1 × 3 = 1.
  
1 3
(l) 2v − 3w
 
       
1 3 2 −9 −7
Solution: 2v − 3w = 2 −2 − 3 0 = −4 + 0 = −4
        
2 −1 4 3 7

4. Let u , v , w be as in Question 3. Let α be the angle between u and v , β be the angle between
u and w , and γ the angle between v and w . Find
(a) cos α
√
u·v 6 6
Solution: cos α = =√ = .
kukkvk 6×3 3
(b) cos β
√
u·w 5 15
Solution: cos β = =√ √ = .
kukkwk 6 × 10 6
(c) cos γ
√
v ·w 1 10
Solution: cos γ = = √ = .
kvkkwk 3 × 10 30

5. For each of the following vectors, find its length, and a unit vector pointing in the same direction.
 
  1
2
(a) u = (b) v =  2  (c) a = −i + 10j (d) b = 4i − j + 3k
−2
−4
Solution: p √
(a) kuk = 22 + (−2)2 = 2 2.
  "1#
1 2 √
2
Hence, a unit vector in the direction of u is √ = √
−1 .
2 2 −2 2
p √
2 2
(b) kvk = 1 + 2 + (−4) = 21.2
 1 
√
 21 
Hence, a unit vector in the direction of v is  √221 .
−4
√
21

4
 √
 
−1 p
(c) a = −i + 10j = , so kak = (−1)2 + 102 = 101, and a unit vector in the direction
10
1 10
of a is − √ i+ √ j.
101 101 
4 p √
(d) b = 4i − j + 3k = −1, so kbk = 42 + (−1)2 + 32 = 26, and a unit vector in the

3
4 1 3
direction of b is √ i − √ j + √ k.
26 26 26
   
1 k−1
6. Find any values of k for which the vectors u = 2 and v =  k  are perpendicular.
3 k+1
Solution: The vectors are perpendicular if their dot product is zero. So u and v are perpendicular
if    
1 k−1
2 ·  k  = k − 1 + 2k + 3k + 3 = 6k + 2 = 0.
3 k+1
1
That is, if k = − .
3
   
−2 k
7. Show that u = and v = are perpendicular for all k. Draw a diagram to illustrate this.
1 2k
Solution: u · v = −2k + 2k = 0 for all k. Therefore, u and v are perpendicular for all k. The
diagram shows the vector u and the straight line y = 2x, to which u is perpendicular. For any value
of k the vector v, drawn as a position vector, will lie along the line y = 2x.

u y = 2x

5
8. Let A = (−3, 2), B = (1, 0) and C = (4, 6) be points in the plane. Prove that ∆ABC is a right-
angled triangle.
Solution:

From the diagram, it certainly appears that the angle at B is a right angle. We can prove that
−→ −−→ −→ −−→
this is the case by showing that BA · BC = 0. Now, BA = −4 i + 2 j and BC = 3 i + 6 j, so
−→ −−→
BA · BC = −12 + 12 = 0 as required.
     
2 1 −2
9. Given that a = −1 , b = 1 and c = 0  find
    
0 1 1
(a) a × b
Solution: Using the method from class, we have:
2 1
−1 1
   
−1 − 0 −1
0 1 and hence a × b = 0 − 2 = −2.
  
2 1 2+1 3
−1 1
(b) a × c
 
−1
Solution: Using the same method again we have a × c = −2.

−2
(c) b × c
 
1
Solution: b × c = −3
2
(d) a × (b × c)

    
2
1 −2
Solution: a × b × c = −1 × −3 = −4
    
0 2 −5
(e) (a × b) × c
     

−1 −2 −2
Solution: a × b × c = −2 × 0 = −5
    
3 1 −4

6
 (f) a × (a × c)

    

2 −1 2
Solution: a × a × c = −1 × −2 =  4 
0 −2 −5
(g) a × (a + c)

    
2

0 −1
Solution: a × a + c = −1 × −1 = −2
    
0 1 −2
(h) (a × a) × c
     

0 −2 0
Solution: a × a × c = 0 × 0 = 0
    
0 1 0
(i) a × (b − 2c)

    

2 5 1
Solution: a × b − 2c = −1 ×  1  = 2
0 −1 7
What do you notice from parts (d) and (e)?
Solution: We notice that (a × b) × c 6= a × (b × c) in general! This is, perhaps, a rather surprising
fact – the way we group elements together matters when computing the cross product.

10. Let a, b, and c be as in Question 9. Find a vector u perpendicular to both a and b, and a vector
v perpendicular to both a and c, and a vector w perpendicular to both b and c.
Solution: Use the fact that for vectors x and y in R3 , the vector x × y is perpendicular to both
x and y. Thus we can take
     
−1 −1 1
u = a × b = −2 , v = a × c = −2 , w = b × c = −3 .
3 −2 2
Note that any nonzero multiples of this vectors will also do.

  
1 5
11. Find two unit vectors perpendicular to both v and w, where v =  2  and w = 1 .
−7 1
Solution: The cross product v × w is perpendicular to both v and w. Calculating the cross
product:
1 5
   
2 1 2+7 9
−7 1 and hence v × w = −35 − 1 = −36.
1 5 1 − 10 −9
2 1
Then p √ √ √
kv × wk = 92 + (−36)2 + (−9)2 = 9 1 + 16 + 1 = 9 18 = 27 2.
 
9
1
So two unit vectors perpendicular to both v and w are ± √ −36.
27 2 −9

7
12. Show that a × a = 0 for all vectors a in R3 .
 
a1
Solution: Let a = a2 . Then:
a3
a1 a1
a2 a2 
a2 a3 − a3 a2
  
0
a3 a3 and hence a × a = a3 a1 − a1 a3 = 0.
  
a1 a1 a1 a2 − a2 a1 0
a2 a2

Challenging questions

13. Prove that if a and b are vectors in R3 , then a × b is perpendicular to both a and b.
Solution: We need to show that (a × b) · a = 0 and (a × b) · b = 0. We have
   
a2 b 3 − a3 b 2 a1
(a × b) · a = a3 b1 − a1 b3  · a2 
a1 b 2 − a2 b 1 a3
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )a1 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )a2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )a3
= 0,

and
   
a2 b 3 − a3 b 2 b1
(a × b) · b = a3 b1 − a1 b3  · b2 
a1 b 2 − a2 b 1 b3
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )b1 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )b2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )b3
= 0.

14. Prove the triangle inequality ka+bk ≤ kak+kbk in two ways. First argue geometrically by drawing
a triangle, and then argue algebraically starting with

ka + bk2 = (a + b) · (a + b).

Solution: A geometric solution is as follows:

The triangle has side lengths kak, kbk and ka + bk.
Using the geometric fact that the length of one side
a+b b
of a triangle is less than or equal to the sum of the
a other two lengths we have

ka + bk ≤ kak + kbk.
We now give another proof, arguing algebraically. We have

ka + bk2 = (a + b) · (a + b)
=a·a+a·b+b·a+b·b
= kak2 + 2(a · b) + kbk2 .

8
 a·b
We now use the fact that cos θ = , where θ is the angle between a and b. Rearranging this
kakkbk
gives a · b = kakkbk cos θ, and since cos θ ≤ 1 we have

ka + bk2 = kak2 + 2kakkbk cos θ + kbk2

≤ kak2 + 2kakkbk + kbk2
= (kak + kbk)2 ,

and therefore ka + bk ≤ kak + kbk.