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Appendix B: Operator Precedence and Associativity 1289

Quick References 1291

Index 1293

Credit 1311

Online The following appendices are available at www.pearsonhighered.com/gaddis.

Appendix C: Introduction to Flowcharting

Appendix D: Using UML in Class Design

Appendix E: Namespaces

Appendix F: Passing Command Line Arguments

Appendix G: Binary Numbers and Bitwise Operations

Appendix H: STL Algorithms

Appendix I: Multi-Source File Programs

Appendix J: Stream Member Functions for Formatting

Appendix K: Unions

Appendix L: Answers to Checkpoints

Appendix M: Answers to Odd Numbered Review Questions

Case Study 1: String Manipulation

Case Study 2: High Adventure Travel Agency—Part 1

Case Study 3: Loan Amortization

Case Study 4: Creating a String Class

Case Study 5: High Adventure Travel Agency—Part 2

Case Study 6: High Adventure Travel Agency—Part 3

Case Study 7: Intersection of Sets

Case Study 8: Sales Commission

Contents

Cover

Half Title

Title Page

Copyright

Brief Contents

Preface xxiii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1

1.1 Why Program? 1

1.2 Computer Systems: Hardware and Software 2

1.3 Programs and Programming Languages 8

1.4 What Is a Program Made of? 14

1.5 Input, Processing, and Output 17

1.6 The Programming Process 18

1.7 Procedural and Object-Oriented Programming 22

Review Questions and Exercises 24

Chapter 2 Introduction to C++ 27

2.1 The Parts of a C++ Program 27

2.2 The cout Object 31

2.3 The #include Directive 36

2.4 Variables, Literals, and Assignment Statements 38

2.5 Identifiers 42

2.6 Integer Data Types 43

2.7 The char Data Type 49

 2.8 The C++ string Class 53

2.9 Floating-Point Data Types 55

2.10 The bool Data Type 58

2.11 Determining the Size of a Data Type 59

2.12 More about Variable Assignments and Initialization 60

2.13 Scope 62

2.14 Arithmetic Operators 63

2.15 Comments 71

2.16 Named Constants 73

2.17 Programming Style 75

Review Questions and Exercises 77

Programming Challenges 81

Chapter 3 Expressions and Interactivity 85

3.1 The cin Object 85

3.2 Mathematical Expressions 91

3.3 When You Mix Apples and Oranges: Type Conversion 100

3.4 Overflow and Underflow 102

3.5 Type Casting 103

3.6 Multiple Assignment and Combined Assignment 106

3.7 Formatting Output 110

3.8 Working with Characters and string Objects 120

3.9 More Mathematical Library Functions 126

3.10 Focus on Debugging: Hand Tracing a Program 132

3.11 Focus on Problem Solving: A Case Study 134

Review Questions and Exercises 138

Programming Challenges 144

Chapter 4 Making Decisions 151
4.1 Relational Operators 151

4.2 The if Statement 156

4.3 Expanding the if Statement 164

4.4 The if/else Statement 168

4.5 Nested if Statements 171

4.6 The if/else if Statement 178

4.7 Flags 183

4.8 Logical Operators 184

4.9 Checking Numeric Ranges with Logical Operators 191

4.10 Menus 192

4.11 Focus on Software Engineering: Validating User Input 195

4.12 Comparing Characters and Strings 197

4.13 The Conditional Operator 201

4.14 The switch Statement 204

4.15 More about Blocks and Variable Scope 213

Review Questions and Exercises 216

Programming Challenges 222

Chapter 5 Loops and Files 231

5.1 The Increment and Decrement Operators 231

5.2 Introduction to Loops: The while Loop 236

5.3 Using the while Loop for Input Validation 243

5.4 Counters 245

5.5 The do-while Loop 246

5.6 The for Loop 251

5.7 Keeping a Running Total 261

 5.8 Sentinels 264

5.9 Focus on Software Engineering: Deciding Which Loop to Use 265

5.10 Nested Loops 266

5.11 Using Files for Data Storage 269

5.12 Optional Topics: Breaking and Continuing a Loop 288

Review Questions and Exercises 292

Programming Challenges 297

Chapter 6 Functions 305

6.1 Focus on Software Engineering: Modular Programming 305

6.2 Defining and Calling Functions 306

6.3 Function Prototypes 315

6.4 Sending Data into a Function 317

6.5 Passing Data by Value 322

6.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Using Functions in a Menu-Driven Program 324

6.7 The return Statement 328

6.8 Returning a Value from a Function 330

6.9 Returning a Boolean Value 338

6.10 Local and Global Variables 340

6.11 Static Local Variables 348

6.12 Default Arguments 351

6.13 Using Reference Variables as Parameters 354

6.14 Overloading Functions 360

6.15 The exit() Function 364

6.16 Stubs and Drivers 367

Review Questions and Exercises 369

Programming Challenges 372

Chapter 7 Arrays and Vectors 381
7.1 Arrays Hold Multiple Values 381

7.2 Accessing Array Elements 383

7.3 No Bounds Checking in C++ 395

7.4 The Range-Based for Loop 398

7.5 Processing Array Contents 402

7.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Using Parallel Arrays 410

7.7 Arrays as Function Arguments 413

7.8 Two-Dimensional Arrays 424

7.9 Arrays with Three or More Dimensions 431

7.10 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 433

7.11 Introduction to the STL vector 435

Review Questions and Exercises 449

Programming Challenges 454

Chapter 8 Searching and Sorting Arrays 463

8.1 Focus on Software Engineering: Introduction to Search Algorithms 463

8.2 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 469

8.3 Focus on Software Engineering: Introduction to Sorting Algorithms 476

8.4 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 486

8.5 Sorting and Searching vectors 495

Review Questions and Exercises 498

Programming Challenges 499

Chapter 9 Pointers 503

9.1 Getting the Address of a Variable 503

9.2 Pointer Variables 505

9.3 The Relationship between Arrays and Pointers 512

 9.4 Pointer Arithmetic 516

9.5 Initializing Pointers 518

9.6 Comparing Pointers 519

9.7 Pointers as Function Parameters 521

9.8 Dynamic Memory Allocation 530

9.9 Returning Pointers from Functions 534

9.10 Using Smart Pointers to Avoid Memory Leaks 541

9.11 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 544

Review Questions and Exercises 550

Programming Challenges 553

Chapter 10 Characters, C-Strings, and More about the string Class 557
10.1 Character Testing 557

10.2 Character Case Conversion 561

10.3 C-Strings 564

10.4 Library Functions for Working with C-Strings 568

10.5 String/Numeric Conversion Functions 579

10.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Writing Your Own C-String-Handling Functions 585

10.7 More about the C++ string Class 591

10.8 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 603

Review Questions and Exercises 604

Programming Challenges 607

Chapter 11 Structured Data 613

11.1 Abstract Data Types 613

11.2 Structures 615

11.3 Accessing Structure Members 618

11.4 Initializing a Structure 622

 11.5 Arrays of Structures 625

11.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Nested Structures 627

11.7 Structures as Function Arguments 631

11.8 Returning a Structure from a Function 634

11.9 Pointers to Structures 637

11.10 Focus on Software Engineering: When to Use., When to Use −> , and When to Use *
640

11.11 Enumerated Data Types 642

Review Questions and Exercises 653

Programming Challenges 659

Chapter 12 Advanced File Operations 665

12.1 File Operations 665

12.2 File Output Formatting 671

12.3 Passing File Stream Objects to Functions 673

12.4 More Detailed Error Testing 675

12.5 Member Functions for Reading and Writing Files 678

12.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Working with Multiple Files 686

12.7 Binary Files 688

12.8 Creating Records with Structures 693

12.9 Random-Access Files 697

12.10 Opening a File for Both Input and Output 705

Review Questions and Exercises 710

Programming Challenges 713

Chapter 13 Introduction to Classes 719

13.1 Procedural and Object-Oriented Programming 719

13.2 Introduction to Classes 726

13.3 Defining an Instance of a Class 731

 13.4 Why Have Private Members? 744

13.5 Focus on Software Engineering: Separating Class Specification from Implementation

745

13.6 Inline Member Functions 751

13.7 Constructors 754

13.8 Passing Arguments to Constructors 759

13.9 Destructors 767

13.10 Overloading Constructors 771

13.11 Private Member Functions 775

13.12 Arrays of Objects 777

13.13 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: An OOP Case Study 781

13.14 Focus on Object-Oriented Programming: Simulating Dice with Objects 788

13.15 Focus on Object-Oriented Design: The Unified Modeling Language (UML) 792

13.16 Focus on Object-Oriented Design: Finding the Classes and Their Responsibilities 794

Review Questions and Exercises 803

Programming Challenges 808

Chapter 14 More about Classes 817

14.1 Instance and Static Members 817

14.2 Friends of Classes 825

14.3 Memberwise Assignment 830

14.4 Copy Constructors 831

14.5 Operator Overloading 837

14.6 Object Conversion 864

14.7 Aggregation 866

14.8 Focus on Object-Oriented Design: Class Collaborations 871

14.9 Focus on Object-Oriented Programming: Simulating the Game of Cho-Han 876

14.10 Rvalue References and Move Semantics 886

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 Review Questions and Exercises 895

Programming Challenges 900

Chapter 15 Inheritance, Polymorphism, and Virtual Functions 907

15.1 What Is Inheritance? 907

15.2 Protected Members and Class Access 916

15.3 Constructors and Destructors in Base and Derived Classes 922

15.4 Redefining Base Class Functions 936

15.5 Class Hierarchies 941

15.6 Polymorphism and Virtual Member Functions 947

15.7 Abstract Base Classes and Pure Virtual Functions 963

15.8 Multiple Inheritance 970

Review Questions and Exercises 977

Programming Challenges 981

Chapter 16 Exceptions and Templates 989

16.1 Exceptions 989

16.2 Function Templates 1008

16.3 Focus on Software Engineering: Where to Start When Defining Templates 1014

16.4 Class Templates 1014

Review Questions and Exercises 1024

Programming Challenges 1026

Chapter 17 The Standard Template Library 1029

17.1 Introduction to the Standard Template Library 1029

17.2 STL Container and Iterator Fundamentals 1029

17.3 The vector Class 1040

17.4 The map, multimap , and unordered_map Classes 1054

 17.5 The set, multiset , and unordered_set Classes 1079

17.6 Algorithms 1086

17.7 Introduction to Function Objects and Lambda Expressions 1107

Review Questions and Exercises 1114

Programming Challenges 1118

Chapter 18 Linked Lists 1123

18.1 Introduction to the Linked List ADT 1123

18.2 Linked List Operations 1125

18.3 A Linked List Template 1141

18.4 Variations of the Linked List 1153

18.5 The STL list and forward_list Containers 1154

Review Questions and Exercises 1158

Programming Challenges 1161

Chapter 19 Stacks and Queues 1165

19.1 Introduction to the Stack ADT 1165

19.2 Dynamic Stacks 1182

19.3 The STL stack Container 1193

19.4 Introduction to the Queue ADT 1195

19.5 Dynamic Queues 1207

19.6 The STL deque and queue Containers 1214

Review Questions and Exercises 1217

Programming Challenges 1219

Chapter 20 Recursion 1223

20.1 Introduction to Recursion 1223

20.2 Solving Problems with Recursion 1227

20.3 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: The Recursive gcd Function 1235
 20.4 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: Solving Recursively Defined Problems
1236

20.5 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: Recursive Linked List Operations 1237

20.6 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Recursive Binary Search Function
1241

20.7 The Towers of Hanoi 1243

20.8 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: The QuickSort Algorithm 1246

20.9 Exhaustive Algorithms 1250

20.10 Focus on Software Engineering: Recursion versus Iteration 1253

Review Questions and Exercises 1253

Programming Challenges 1255

Chapter 21 Binary Trees 1257

21.1 Definition and Applications of Binary Trees 1257

21.2 Binary Search Tree Operations 1260

21.3 Template Considerations for Binary Search Trees 1277

Review Questions and Exercises 1283

Programming Challenges 1284

Appendix A: The ASCII Character Set 1287

Appendix B: Operator Precedence and Associativity 1289

Quick References 1291

Index 1293

Credit 1311

Online The following appendices are available at www.pearsonhighered.com/gaddis.

Appendix C: Introduction to Flowcharting

Appendix D: Using UML in Class Design

Appendix E: Namespaces

Appendix F: Passing Command Line Arguments

Appendix G: Binary Numbers and Bitwise Operations

Appendix H: STL Algorithms

Appendix I: Multi-Source File Programs

Appendix J: Stream Member Functions for Formatting

Appendix K: Unions

Appendix L: Answers to Checkpoints

Appendix M: Answers to Odd Numbered Review Questions

Case Study 1: String Manipulation

Case Study 2: High Adventure Travel Agency—Part 1

Case Study 3: Loan Amortization

Case Study 4: Creating a String Class

Case Study 5: High Adventure Travel Agency—Part 2

Case Study 6: High Adventure Travel Agency—Part 3

Case Study 7: Intersection of Sets

Case Study 8: Sales Commission

Preface

Welcome to Starting Out with C++: From Control Structures through Objects, 9th edition. This book is
intended for use in a two-semester C++ programming sequence, or an accelerated one-semester
course. Students new to programming, as well as those with prior course work in other languages, will
find this text beneficial. The fundamentals of programming are covered for the novice, while the details,
pitfalls, and nuances of the C++ language are explored in depth for both the beginner and more
experienced student. The book is written with clear, easy-to-understand language, and it covers all the
necessary topics for an introductory programming course. This text is rich in example programs that are
concise, practical, and real-world oriented, ensuring that the student not only learns how to implement
the features and constructs of C++, but why and when to use them.

Changes in the Ninth Edition

This book’s pedagogy, organization, and clear writing style remain the same as in the previous edition.
Many improvements and updates have been made, which are summarized here:

The material on the Standard Template Library (STL) has been completely rewritten and expanded
into its own chapter. Previously, Chapter 16 covered exceptions, templates, and gave brief
coverage to the STL. In this edition, Chapter 16 covers exceptions and templates, and Chapter
17 is a new chapter dedicated to the STL. The new chapter covers the following topics:
The array and vector classes
The various types of iterators
Emplacement versus insertion
The map , multimap , and unordered_map Classes
The set , multiset , and unordered_set Classes
Sorting and searching algorithms
Permutation algorithms
Set algorithms
Using function pointers with STL algorithms
Function objects, or functors
Lambda expressions
Chapter 2 now includes a discussion of alternative forms of variable initialization, including
functional notation, and brace notation (also known as uniform initialization).
Chapter 3 now mentions the round function, introduced in C++ 11.
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Spanish and
Portuguese South America during the Colonial Period;
Vol. 2 of 2
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial

Period; Vol. 2 of 2

Author: Robert Grant Watson

Release date: June 6, 2016 [eBook #52252]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPANISH AND

PORTUGUESE SOUTH AMERICA DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD;
VOL. 2 OF 2 ***
 Contents of Volume II.
Some typographical errors have
been corrected; a list follows the
text.
The varied spellings of Spanish
names have not been corrected or
normalized.
(etext transcriber's note)

S O U T H A M E R I C A.

“Fall’n nations gaze on Spain; if freed, she frees

More than her fell Pizarros once enchain’d;
Strange retribution! now Columbia’s ease
Repairs the wrongs that Quito’s sons sustain’d.”
—Childe Harold.

SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE

SOUTH AMERICA

DURING
 THE COLONIAL PERIOD.

BY
ROBERT GRANT WATSON,
EDITOR OF “MURRAY’S HANDBOOK OF GREECE,” FOURTH EDITION, 1872.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOL. II.

LONDON:
TRÜBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL.
1884.
[All rights reserved.]

Ballantyne Press
BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
 CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.
Brazil; The Dutch War: 1623-1637 1
CHAPTER II.
Brazil; The Dutch War. Government of Count Maurice of
Nassau: 1638-1644 22
CHAPTER III.
Brazil; The Dutch War; Rising of the Portuguese: 1644-1645 42
CHAPTER IV.
Brazil; Conclusion of the Dutch War: 1646-1661 53
CHAPTER V.
Jesuit Missions in Northern Brazil: 1652-1662 76
CHAPTER VI.
Establishment of the French in South America: 1657-1696 95
CHAPTER VII.
Brazil; its Progress during the Seventeenth Century: 1600-
1700 112
CHAPTER VIII.
Peru; Progress of the Viceroyalty: 1551-1774 126
CHAPTER IX.
Viceroyalty of New Granada: 1535-179O 146
CHAPTER X.
Chili; Progress of the Colony: 1604-1792 159
CHAPTER XI.
Brazil; Discovery of the Mines; Attempt of the French on Rio
de Janeiro: 1702-1720 169
CHAPTER XII.
Brazil; Discovery of the Diamond District: 1724-1749 186
CHAPTER XIII.
Progress of Buenos Ayres: 1580-1800 203
CHAPTER XIV.
Brazil; the War of the Seven Reductions: 1750-1761 218
CHAPTER XV.
Expulsion of the Jesuits from Portugal and Brazil: 1759-1767 232
CHAPTER XVI.
Expulsion of the Jesuits from Buenos Ayres and Paraguay: 1749-
1805 247
CHAPTER XVII.
Brazil in the Eighteenth Century; Arrival of the Braganzas:
1776-1806 256
CHAPTER XVIII.
English Expeditions to La Plata, under Beresford, Auchmuty,
and Whitelocke: 1806-1807 271

Appendix 295
SOUTH AMERICA.

Book II.
 CHAPTER I.

BRAZIL; THE DUTCH WAR.

1623-1637.

The appearance of the Dutch as actors on the Brazilian stage arose, as

might be expected, from the connection of the Low Countries with Spain
and from that of Spain with Portugal. Their success in attacking the sources
of their enemy’s supplies in the East led to the establishment of a West
Indian Company, the chief object of which was to make conquests in Brazil.
A fleet was fitted out under the command of Willekens, who had under him
the celebrated Peter Heyne. The religious intolerance from which the Dutch
had themselves so terribly suffered at the hands of their Spanish rulers had
taught them to be tolerant in such matters towards others, and to this
circumstance they were now indebted for much valuable information
respecting Brazil, which they received from the Jews who had taken refuge
amongst them.
The Dutch fleet sailed at the close of 1623, and when they had crossed
the line, the commander found that his sealed instructions directed him to
attack S. Salvador. A storm, however, interrupted this programme; and
Willekens, on reaching the neighbourhood of Bahia, was compelled to
delay for some days, awaiting his comrades. On the news of his approach
being communicated to the governor, it was received at first with Brazilian
apathy, which, however, was succeeded by alarm on his strength being
correctly reported. The colonial forces were mustered for the defence of
their possessions; but, as no immediate attack was made, alarm in time
again gave way to apathy, and the colonists dispersed to attend to their
individual concerns. When Willekens had collected his fleet, he found S.
Salvador undefended; and on the following day he took possession of the
place without opposition. In this easy manner the Dutch, without having
had to strike a blow, became masters of the capital of Brazil.
 Willekens had with him a soldier of experience, Van Dort, who now took
the command on shore. The fortifications were repaired, and proclamations
were issued offering full possession of their property and freedom of
worship to all such as would submit. Amongst those who were thus brought
under Dutch rule were two hundred Jews. The Brazilian authorities, who
imagined that this was merely a predatory expedition on the part of the
Dutch, such as they had become more or less accustomed to on the part of
Englishmen or Frenchmen, were astonished to find that the Hollanders
meant to keep possession of what they had taken. Their national spirit
revived with the realization of this fact; and as a consequence measures
were concerted to recover their honour and their property. The governor
having been taken prisoner, the bishop and other chief persons opened his
succession papers, by which they found that their obedience was now due to
the governor of Pernambuco. Messengers were accordingly sent to advise
him of his new position, and meanwhile the command was vested in the
bishop Teixeira. His force consisted of fourteen hundred Portuguese and
two hundred and fifty natives, with which he established a fortified camp
about a league from the city, procuring three guns from a vessel which had
taken refuge in one of the rivers of the Reconcave.
The bishop, who was at least energetic, if not otherwise qualified for a
military command, was so fortunate at the outset as that the Dutch general,
Van Dort, fell at the hands of one of his skirmishing parties, while the
officer who succeeded him was shot. In the midst of this undecided
situation it seems strange indeed that the invaders should have been so
confident as to admit of Willekens sailing for Holland with eleven vessels.
A few days after his departure, his next in command, Admiral Heyne, sailed
in turn with the remaining vessels for Angola, his object being to secure a
supply of negroes for the Dutch colony in Brazil. The admiral was,
however, baffled in this object; and, returning to South America, he met
with no more good fortune in an attempt upon Espirito Santo. Proceeding
from there to Bahia, he found the Spanish and Portuguese fleets in
possession, and, being unable to oppose them, made sail for Europe.
The loss of Bahia had fallen like a thunderbolt on the court of Madrid;
and orders were given to have a great fleet equipped for the purpose of
recovering that city, whilst immediate succours were sent to such other
ports as were supposed to be most in danger, namely, to Pernambuco, Rio
de Janeiro, and Angola. The Spanish Government showed on this occasion
the spirit by which it was chiefly animated, by ordering all sorts of religious
exercises to be undertaken in connection with the recent calamity. The
authorities of Portugal were instructed to inquire into and punish the crimes
which had drawn down so marked a manifestation of the Divine vengeance
as the delivery of the capital of Brazil into the hands of heretics. Special
prayers, to be repeated during nine successive days, were ordered
throughout the kingdom, whilst a litany was composed for use at daily
mass. In addition to this, a solemn religious procession was ordered in
every town and village. The Portuguese, to whom the loss of their chief
Brazilian town came more immediately home, showed their concern at the
intelligence in a more worldly fashion; the city of Lisbon giving a donation
of one hundred thousand crowns to the Government towards its recovery,
and the Dukes of Braganza and Caminha twenty and sixteen thousand,
respectively. The nobles generally offered their persons and property in the
public service, whilst men of the highest rank embarked as volunteers,—
amongst them Noronha, who had been Portuguese Viceroy in India. The
armament now sent out to Brazil was so thoroughly a national one on the
part of Portugal that it is said there was not one noble family in the country
which was not represented in it. It consisted of six-and-twenty vessels,
bearing four thousand men, and they were to join the Spanish fleet at the
Cape de Verds. The latter fleet, however, had not been equipped with the
breathless haste displayed in the case of that of Portugal; and the
Portuguese had thus to wait during nine weary weeks at the place of
rendezvous for the arrival of the Spaniards. Of the proportions of the
Spanish fleet, however, nothing could be said, since it consisted of forty
sail, bearing eight thousand men.
Albuquerque, the governor of Pernambuco, and who was now
1625.
governor of Brazil, being unable to muster a sufficient force to
cope with the Dutch, contented himself with harassing them by attacking
their outposts and cutting off their supplies. In March 1625 the united fleets
of Spain and Portugal appeared off Bahia, and so intoxicated were the
Brazilians at the sight that they forthwith made an attack on the Dutch
entrenchments. The attack, however, was premature, and they were repulsed
with loss. The city had been fortified with careful science, and was
defended by ninety-two pieces of artillery. The Spanish commander, Don
Fadrique de Toledo, who knew that reinforcements were expected from
Holland, proposed to land three thousand men leaving the rest on board to
intercept the enemy’s succours. It was resolved, however, to land half of the
army; whilst the fleet, by stretching across the entrance to the bay, should,
at the same time, blockade the ships in port and cut off supplies.
The besieged Hollanders first made a bold attempt with six hundred men
to surprise the camp, by which they effected considerable slaughter; and
next, by means of two fire-ships, to burn the blockading fleet. The latter
attempt, however, recoiled upon themselves, for the Spanish were so
alarmed at the possibility of danger such as that which they had escaped,
that they resolved without loss of time to destroy the Dutch ships. The
Dutch drew their vessels under the forts; but a way was hewn through the
rocks which exposed them to artillery fire, and the greater number were
sunk. Meanwhile a portion of the garrison became mutinous; the French
and English mercenaries, who were sure of quarter, refused any longer to
fight, and nothing was left for the Dutch commander but to capitulate. He
and his men were to receive shipping and stores to convey them to Holland,
and sufficient arms for their defence by the way; but the city of Bahia,
which was given up on the 1st of May, suffered considerably at the hands of
those who had come to expel the invaders. There was, however, some
difficulty in executing the terms of capitulation, for the country round
Bahia, having been taxed beyond its resources, was now destitute of
provisions, and before these could be procured from the neighbouring
captaincies the state of affairs had assumed altogether a new aspect.
Tidings at length arrived that the long-expected Dutch fleet, with
reinforcements, had passed the Canaries; and a Portuguese prisoner who
had escaped brought intelligence of its approach. Thereupon the two
thousand prisoners were placed on board of dismantled ships, which were
drawn under the guns of the fortress; and it was determined to await the
enemy’s approach within the harbour. On the 22nd of May the Dutch fleet
of thirty-four sail stood into the bay, under the delusion that S. Salvador was
still held by their countrymen. The admiral, Henrik, however, was soon
undeceived; but in his confusion he lost the opportunity of attacking the
Spaniards and Portuguese with advantage. He stood off to the north and
passed Olinda during a gale which carried him on to the Bay of Traiçam,
where the natives were disposed to welcome any one who might deliver
them from the hands of the Portuguese. Here he landed his sick and
fortified himself; but he was disturbed by an expedition from Pernambuco
and Paraïba, upon which he thought it better to re-embark his men and
depart. Henrik’s fleet met with no further success. He himself died, and the
remains of his unfortunate expedition found their way back to Holland.
The Spanish general, leaving a sufficient garrison in Bahia, now sailed
for Europe, taking the Dutch troops with him. The fleet encountered storms,
and three Spanish and nine Portuguese vessels foundered; another sank on
reaching the island of St. George; whilst two were taken by a Dutch
squadron. Another vessel caught fire from a captured Dutch ship, together
with which it was burned. In short, Menezes, who had sailed out of the
Tagus with six-and-twenty vessels, returned to that river with his own
alone. The Dutch prisoners had parted from the fleet early enough to escape
its disasters.
In Holland, the recovery of S. Salvador by Spain and Portugal,
1627.
and the bad fortune which had attended the expedition of Henrik,
had naturally the effect of considerably damping the public ardour on behalf
of the West India Company; but, the Prince of Orange steadily adhering to a
war policy, his views prevailed. The Spanish Government, warned by their
repeated losses at sea, resolved at length to keep up a strong naval force in
America; but, as was usual with them in all questions great or small, lost a
considerable amount of valuable time discussing whether it would be better
to equip the intended fleet in Europe or in Brazil. Whilst this point was
being decided on, the Dutch admiral, Heyne, in 1627, once more entered
Bahia. As it was known that he was off the coast, the governor, Oliveira,
had made every preparation for its defence. In particular, two-and-forty
large pieces of cannon were placed so as to bear upon the Dutch should they
attempt to enter. In beating up against the wind, Heyne was so unfortunate
as to run his own vessel between the two largest of the enemy’s floating
batteries. But, on the other hand, he was so placed that the Portuguese could
not fire upon him without endangering their countrymen; and in the course
of half an hour he had sent one of the batteries to the bottom; whereupon
the others struck. The Dutch, coming in boats, cut the cables of the smaller
vessels and carried them out, blowing up Heyne’s ship and another. The
admiral now sent four of his largest prizes to Holland, adding four others to
his own fleet, and destroying the rest.
Heyne, indeed, was as fortunate as Henrik had been the reverse. After a
cruise to the southward he returned to Bahia, when he undertook a most
perilous enterprise in attempting to cut out four ships from one of the rivers
of the Reconcave. They were some miles up the river, and although
preparations had been made to intercept his return, he brought one vessel
back with him and the lading of the other three. After this exploit, Heyne,
having taken his departure, fell in with and captured the Spanish fleet from
Mexico, thereby securing the greatest prize which has ever been made at
sea, and by which the West India Company were amply reimbursed for all
their former losses. As might be expected, their schemes of conquest now
revived. One of their captains took possession of the island of Fernando
Noronha, near Pernambuco; but before it was effectually fortified, the
Portuguese took the alarm and sent a sufficient force to crush the new
settlement.
The West India Company lost no time in preparing fresh
1629.
enterprises against Brazil. This time their efforts were directed on
Pernambuco, from which province they estimated that one hundred and
fifty vessels might annually be freighted with sugar; whilst its harbours
were conveniently situated as points of departure whence their cruisers
might sail to intercept more rich prizes from the Spanish Main. In order to
ensure secrecy as far as possible, the preparations for their fleet were
distributed over several ports, and the ships were to rendezvous at the Cape
de Verds. Nevertheless, information of what was going on was brought to
Lisbon, and the court of Madrid was duly warned. The governor of Brazil
was accordingly instructed to place both Bahia and Olinda in a state of
defence; whilst Mathias de Albuquerque was sent out from Madrid, with
some men and stores, to the assistance of his brother, the captain of
Pernambuco.
On his arrival at Olinda, Mathias found the place almost
1630.
utterly undefended; nor did he himself do much to make things
better. He had brought out the news of the birth of a prince and heir of
Spain; and whilst Olinda was occupied in merry-making over this joyous
event, a pinnace arrived from the Cape de Verds announcing the assemblage
there of the Dutch fleet and its departure for Brazil. That fleet consisted of
fifty sail, under Henrik Loncq as general and Peter Adrian as admiral. Eight
of these had driven off the Spanish fleet near Teneriffe. On the 15th of
February they appeared before Olinda, having on board about seven
thousand men. The whole force of the town, such as it was, was collected to
oppose them, and the summons which Loncq sent in was answered by a
discharge of musketry. The entrance to the harbour had been blocked by
sunken vessels, and the sea was so rough that the Dutch could not use their
guns with effect.
But whilst a harmless cannonade was being carried on, Colonel
Wardenburg, taking sixteen ships some miles to the north of the town, was
able to land without opposition. Retaining only a few gunboats with eleven
pieces of artillery, he divided his troops into three divisions, and on the
following morning began his march towards Olinda. The news of his
landing had already produced a panic, and all were anxious that their
families and portable property should be placed in security in the country.
Under these circumstances, Wardenburg advanced without any serious
opposition, although it would have been easy in a wooded country to
impede his progress. Indeed, the river Doce was itself an obstacle, and the
Dutch had to delay its passage until low tide, when they forded it breast-
high. At this point some shots from the gunboats caused a general
stampede. The redoubt at the entrance of Olinda checked the invaders for a
moment; but it was soon overcome, and the town was given up to be
plundered.
The Portuguese governor had retreated to Recife, which place, however,
he had now not sufficient men to defend. As there was no hope of
preserving it, he set fire to the ships and warehouses, which contained much
valuable property; and there remained only for the invaders to reduce the
two forts of St. Francisco and St. George, which commanded the entrance
to the harbour. Five days were suffered to elapse before the latter was
attacked. It was defended by Vieira and a band of young men who had
volunteered with him, with a courage and pertinacity which formed a bright
contrast to the confusion and pusillanimity displayed by their countrymen.
The two forts, however, could not hold out long, and the Dutch fleet entered
the harbour in triumph. Their hold upon Pernambuco was still further
confirmed by the arrival, nine days later, of another fleet with
reinforcements.
When the fugitive inhabitants of Olinda, relieved from the actual
presence of the invader, found themselves unpursued in the country, they
began to collect their reason and to recover their composure. Their general
now pointed out to them that the object of the Dutch was gain rather than
glory; that they coveted the sugar and tobacco which Pernambuco could
produce, and that the surest way to frustrate their plans was to prevent them
from cultivating these articles. Works were accordingly begun at a distance
of three miles from Olinda and Recife, and were prosecuted with the utmost
alacrity by the population in general, whilst four pieces of cannon were
procured from the wreck of a Dutch ship. Indeed such was the speed with
which the camp was constructed that it was already in a state of defence
when the knowledge of its existence first came to the ears of the invaders;
and an attempt to gain it by surprise was frustrated by the vigilance of
Mathias de Albuquerque. On this occasion the Dutch fled, leaving forty
slain.
Emboldened by this success, the Portuguese now assumed the offensive
and laid an ambush for the Dutch general, who with six hundred men was
proceeding from Recife to Olinda. He was taken by surprise, and owed his
safety to the flight of his horse. The danger of passing from one of these
towns to the other was so considerable, and afforded so good an opportunity
for Portuguese attack, that it gave rise amongst these to the enrolment of a
force who from the nature of their duties were called bush-rangers. They
consisted, for the most part, of peasants, who came to the camp when they
could spare time from their proper occupations. These men, who were only
occasional visitors to the camp, were well off; but the fugitives from
Olinda, some fifteen thousand in number, who dwelt at Bom Jesus, as the
camp was called, suffered excessively from lack of provisions.
In the above respect the Dutch were no better off, for they could only
hope for relief from the sea, whilst the only water to be found at Recife was
collected from pits dug in the beach, and was scarcely fit for use. And
although forests were before them, these were so well guarded by the
Portuguese that their only fuel was that which they had brought with them.
So pressing were the necessities of the Dutch, that the high prices which it
was worth their while to offer were sure to tempt some of their mongrel
opponents, three of whom were hanged by Mathias after having been
detected in a forbidden traffic with the invader. The Dutch had nothing
better to do but to endeavour to extend their conquests by sea. Their first
expedition was against the island of Itamaraca, which contained twenty-
three sugar-works, and was situated eight leagues to the south of Olinda.
They did not succeed, however, in conquering it, and contented themselves
with building a fort opposite the neighbouring shore commanding the
entrance of a port. In Fort Orange they left eighty men with twelve guns
before returning to Recife.
 Whilst these events were passing, information of which was, of course,
conveyed to the court of Madrid, that Government was not wholly idle.
Nine vessels were despatched for the relief of the camp of Bom Jesus, some
of which fell into the hands of the enemy’s cruisers, so that but little good
resulted from their expedition. The inhabitants of the province of
Pernambuco were on the whole left to defend their own interests, it being
hoped that the harassing warfare which they were prosecuting would prove
the best means of inducing the Dutch to withdraw from the country. When it
appeared, however, that the Low Countries were fitting out a strong fleet to
be sent to Pernambuco under the command of Admiral Hadrian Patry, who
was to take out with him many Dutch families as settlers, the Fabian policy
of the court of Madrid was no longer pursued. Again a fleet was equipped at
Lisbon, the command of which was given to Don Antonio Oquendo. Of this
force, which was ultimately to proceed to Spanish America, ten vessels,
with one thousand men and twelve pieces of cannon, were destined for
Pernambuco.
The fleet which sailed under Oquendo’s flag, besides the ten vessels with
troops for Pernambuco, consisted of twenty ships of war; whilst four-and-
twenty merchantmen, laden with sugar, joined him for the sake of his
convoy at Bahia, at which port he had been instructed to call. This latter
instruction gave the Dutch admiral time to reach Recife; and, having landed
his troops, he sailed out again, with sixteen ships, in quest of the enemy.
When the fleets came in sight of one another Oquendo ordered his
transports and merchant vessels to fall to leeward. His own ship then
engaged in a desperate struggle with that of his opponent, whose vessel it
grappled. Ere long the Dutch vessel was on fire, and that of Oquendo
narrowly escaped the same fate. It was, however, towed away in time. The
renowned admiral Patry, disdaining to attempt to save his life, determined at
least to preserve his colours from falling into the hands of the enemy, and
plunged with them into the sea. In this fierce action, which was splendidly
fought on both sides, about three thousand men fell, the loss being pretty
equally distributed. On the morrow, Oquendo, having given orders to the
Count of Bagnuolo to take the succours into Pernambuco, proceeded on his
way to the Spanish Main to convoy the homeward-bound galleons.
Bagnuolo gained the port of Barra Grande, thirty leagues from the camp
of Bom Jesus. The troops were safely landed, and after a difficult march
joined Mathias de Albuquerque. The Dutch commander, knowing that the
Portuguese had received reinforcements, thought it necessary to concentrate
his troops at Recife, upon which he set fire to Olinda, the entire city being
consumed. But it was not long before the Dutch discovered the impolicy of
this latter measure, for, being concentrated at Recife, the whole Portuguese
force was brought to bear on that one point. In order to make a diversion,
three thousand men were despatched to attack Paraïba. This place was
defended by a fort which commanded the bar, and the Dutch therefore
determined to attack by land rather than to enter the river. There was some
severe fighting; but Paraïba being reinforced from the camp, the invaders
were at length constrained to retire, leaving their stores behind them. The
next attempt of the Dutch was upon Rio Grande, at the entrance of the river
Potengi; but here too they were unsuccessful.
Whilst Olinda remained closed, the trade between the province of
Pernambuco and Portugal passed for the most part through a port, about
seven leagues to the north of Recife, called Pontal de Nazareth, so named
from a celebrated church on a mountain, possessing a miracle-working
image of the Virgin. It was fortified with four guns, and had a garrison of
nearly two hundred men. On this place the Dutch directed their next
attempt; but, not liking its appearance, they coasted along, meaning to land
in a creek some distance beyond. It so happened that they were received by
a sharp fire from a party of soldiers who were escorting some treasure, and
whose numbers were concealed by the thicket. Thinking that a strong party
had been sent thither from Nazareth, the Dutch commander now doubled
back on that place. He was, however, mistaken, and his attack on it was
repulsed with a loss of seventy men.
The Dutch had now been for two years at Recife; but their
1632.
conquests were confined to the possession of that place and to a
fort on the island of Itamaraca. A gleam of good fortune, however, now
awaited them. A mulatto named Calabar, a native of Pernambuco, for some
reason not known, deserted to the invaders. He was possessed of such
sagacity and enterprise, and moreover was so well acquainted with the
country, that his assistance was invaluable. Although he had been the first to
desert, he was soon the means of inducing others to follow his example. His
earliest exploit was to lead the Dutch on an expedition to Garrasu, which
place he surprised whilst the inhabitants were at mass. They plundered and
burnt the town, treating the people with much cruelty.
 Before the alarm occasioned by the fate of Garrasu had cooled down,
Calabar next led the Dutch on a second expedition to the south, where they
destroyed another settlement. He then guided them to the river Fermoso,
and surprised five ships nearly laden. On the Portuguese building a little
fort here to prevent the recurrence of a similar disaster, Calabar once more
attacked the place, when the commander and nineteen out of the twenty
men of the garrison fell in its defence. Indeed, Calabar completely
embarrassed his late commander, whose every plan was thwarted, and who
was utterly at a loss what to do. His measures were so uniformly
unsuccessful that he did not escape from his countrymen the suspicion of
treachery, though he may be acquitted of anything further than incapacity.
The results of this warfare were so meagre and its progress so slow, that
the West India Company now resolved upon the step of sending out two
commissioners with full powers to decide as to its continuance or
otherwise. They brought with them fresh stores and three thousand men. As
the chances of the war were now in their favour, they resolved to pursue it.
They did so with vigour; and, having gained some successes, determined to
attack the camp. The attempt was made on Good Friday, when it was
supposed that the Portuguese would be employed in religious ceremonies.
Three thousand men advanced under the Dutch commander Rimbach; but
they were received by a hot fire, by which Rimbach himself fell, and were
forced to retreat in great disorder. The next attempt of the invaders was
upon the island of Itamaraca, in which they were this time successful. The
loss which the Portuguese thus repeatedly sustained was not made up to
them by reinforcements, and their whole force had now dwindled to twelve
hundred men. This state of things suggested to the Dutch commissioners the
idea of winning the camp by siege. The natural difficulties of the country,
however, put an end to this plan so soon as it was attempted to put it into
execution.
The indefatigable Calabar next projected an expedition to a greater
distance, namely, to some lagoons forty-six leagues to the south of Recife.
The object appears to have been merely to create terror amongst the
inhabitants; and the Dutch ere long perceived the impolicy of ravaging a
country which it was their object to possess. It was their good fortune to
intercept a small squadron and a supply of stores, sent from Lisbon to the
relief of the Portuguese. After a struggle, one of the Portuguese men-of-war
was driven on shore, the men, the guns, and part of the cargo being saved;
but the other man-of-war was sunk. The commander of the first Portuguese
vessel received orders to embark his men at Cunhau, where four vessels
would be ready to receive them. These, however, had scarcely got under
weigh when the Dutch were upon them. Three were burnt; the fourth was
taken. This affair proved one of the greatest losses which the Portuguese
suffered during the entire expedition. Of the six hundred men sent out, but
one hundred and eighty reached the camp.
The next attempt made by the Dutch was against Rio Grande, their
guide, as usual, being Calabar. The fortress was defended by thirteen guns;
but it was commanded by a sand-hill, to which Calabar led the besiegers.
Rio Grande fell almost immediately; and five hundred men, who arrived
from Paraïba to its assistance, had the mortification of seeing the Dutch
flag flying over its walls. Indeed, the Dutch were now victorious on all
sides; for they had, by means of emissaries, been able to rouse against the
Portuguese the Tapuyas, a barbarous tribe who had been driven by the latter
into the interior, and who now took a merciless vengeance upon their
women and children; and the Portuguese were still further harassed by a
collection of negroes, who had from time to time escaped from slavery, and
who had settled in a tract of country called the Palmares.
In February 1634 the Dutch commander quitted Recife,
1634.
leaving that place with so diminished a force that Albuquerque
determined to attempt to surprise it—an attempt which only failed owing to
the lukewarmness with which it was carried out. The Dutch had gone in
force to Paraïba, their object being to get possession of St. Augustines, the
point at which stores and troops for Brazil usually landed, and whence
much of the produce of Pernambuco was shipped. Having thrown the
Portuguese off their guard by a feint, the Dutch proceeded along the coast to
a place called Pedras. Eleven of their vessels ran in across the bar, whilst
they were followed through an opening in the reef by the launches with
Calabar and a thousand men on board. The port of Pontal was now in the
possession of the Dutch, but as the bar was still commanded by the
Portuguese, the former could only communicate with their main force
outside by means of the opening in the reef by which Calabar had entered.
Albuquerque and his general arrived ere long from the camp with three
hundred men, and, having collected a force of eight hundred, proceeded to
attack the Dutch in the town. The latter were thrown into confusion, and the
Portuguese would have easily regained Pontal but for a party of their own
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