ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

ME1302 – Manufacturing Processes

UNIT I METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand Casting : Sand Mould – Type of patterns - Pattern Materials – Pattern

allowances –Moulding sand Properties and testing – Cores –Types and
applications – Moulding machines– Types and applications; Melting furnaces :
Blast and Cupola Furnaces; Principle of special casting processes : Shell -
investment – Ceramic mould – Pressure die casting - Centrifugal Casting - CO 2
process – Stir casting; Defects in Sand casting.

1.1CASTING
” Foundry or casting is the process of producing metal/alloy component
parts of desired shapes by pouring the molten metal into a prepared mould (of
that shape) and then allowing the metal to cool and solidify. The solidified
piece of metal is known as a CASTING”.
Advantages and limitations:
 Complicated shapes can be manufactured easily because the molten
metal can flows in to any small section.
 Casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive
 For trial production or production of small lot, it is an ideal method.
 Casting of any size and weight, even up to 200 tons can be made.
 Sometimes the surface defects as well as inner defects can occur, due
to poor surface finish some secondary operation is required.
1.2 FUNCTION OF PATTERN:
 A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
 A Pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting
requires a core and need to be made hollow.
 Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces
reduce casting defects.
 Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.
1.2.1The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight.
3. Strong, hard and durable.
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

1
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions.

1.3 PATTERN MATERIALS
1. Wooden patterns:
Wood is the material commonly used for pattern. (Teak wood, rose wood)
These are employed where large no. of castings have to be produced from same
patterns.
Advantages:
 Inexpensive
 Easily available in large quantities
 Easy to fabricate
 Light in weight
 They can be repaired easily
 Easy to obtain good surface finish
Limitations:
 Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling
 Possess poor wear resistance
 Abraded easily by sand action
 Absorb moisture, consequently get wrapped
2. Metal patterns:
These are employed where large no. of castings have to be produced from same
patterns.
Metal patterns are used in machine moulding. (Ex:Cast iron, brass, aluminium)
Advantages:
 Do not absorb moisture
 More stronger
 Possess much longer life
 Do not wrap, retain their shape
 Greater resistance to abrasion
 Accurate and smooth surface finish
 Good machinability
Limitations:
 Expensive
 Not easily repaired
 Ferrous patterns get rusted
 Heavy weight

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

2
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

3. Plastic pattern:
These are may not work well when subject to conditions of severe shock
as in machine molding (jolting).
Advantages:
 Durable
 Provides a smooth surface
 Moisture resistant
 Does not involve any appreciable change in size or shape
 Light weight
 Wear and corrosion resistance
 Easy to make
 Abrasion resistance
 Goodresistance to chemical attack
Limitations:
 Plastic patterns are Fragile
4. Plaster Patterns:
Plaster may be made out of Plaster of paris or Gypsum cement. Plaster
mixture is poured into a mould made by a sweep pattern or a wooden master
pattern, in order to obtain a Plaster pattern.
Advantages:
 It can be easily worked by using wood working tools.
 Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty.
 It has high compressive strength.
5. Wax pattern:
In investment casting wax pattern is used. Paraffin, shellac wax are
commonly used.
Advantages:
 Provide very good surface finish.
 Impart high accuracy to castings.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

3
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

1.4 TYPES OF PATTERN

1. Single piece pattern:

 Made from one piece and does not contain loose pieces or joints.
 Inexpensive.
 Used for large size simple castings.
 Pattern is accommodated either in the cope or in the drag.
Examples:
a. Bodies of regular shapes.
b. Gears
2. Split piece pattern:
 Patterns having complicated geometry cannot be removed from mould if
they are made by a single piece pattern.
 The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns are
accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the mold respectively.
 Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the mould.
 Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between the two parts of
the pattern.
Examples:
Bearings, pulleys and spheres.

3.Loose Piece pattern:

Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in the molding.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

4
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in the molding
sand. Such patterns are usually made with one or more loose pieces for
facilitating from the molding box and are known as loose piece patterns

.
 Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of the pattern,
with the help of dowel pins.
 The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the molding box and
thereafter as soon as the loose parts are removed, the result is the mold
cavity.

4. Match piece pattern:

 It consists of a match plate, on either side of which each half of split patterns
is fastened.
 A number of different sized and shaped patterns may be mounted on one
match plate.
 After the cope and drag have been rammed with the molding sand, the match
plate pattern is removed from in between the cope and drag.
 Match plate patterns are normally used in machine molding.

5. Sweep pattern:
 A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden board which sweeps the
shape of the casting into the sand all around the circumference. The sweep
pattern rotates about the post. (EX: Bell shape casting)
 Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and labour as compared to
making a full pattern.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

5
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

 A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large casting of circular sections

and symmetrical shapes.

6. Gated pattern:

 The sections connecting different patterns serve as runner and gates. This
facilitates filling of the mould with molten metal in a better manner and at
the same time eliminates the time and labour otherwise consumed in
cutting runners and gates.
 A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at one time and thus it is
used in mass production systems. Gated patterns are employed for
producing small castings.

7. Skeleton pattern: A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape which

may be S-bend pipe or a chute or something else. The skeleton frame is
mounted on a metal base
 The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is thus a wooden work.
 The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

6
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

 A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand and
removes extra sand.
 Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large castings.
 A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it involves less material
costs. (EX: turbines, water pipes).

8. Follow board pattern:

 A follow board is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern
which is very thin and fragile and which may give way and collapse under
pressure when the sand above the pattern is being rammed.
 With the follow board support under the weak pattern, the drag is rammed,
and then the fallow board is withdrawn. The rammed drag is inverted, cope
is mounted on it and rammed. During this operation pattern remains over
the inverted drag and get support from the rammed sand of the drag under
it.

.
 Follow boards are also used for casting master patterns for many
applications.
1.5 TYPES OF ALLOWANCES
St.Joseph’s College of Engineering
7
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

1. Shrinkage Allowance: All most all cast metals shrink or contract

volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types:
1. Liquid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal
changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account
for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided
in the mold.
2. Solid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided
on the patterns.
 Different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is the property
of the cast metal/alloy.
 For example the white cast iron shrinks 21.0mm/m, Aluminium shrinks
13mm/m and Copper shrinks 16mm/m during casting.
The metal shrinkage depends upon:
 The cast metal or alloy.
 Pouring temperature of the metal/alloy.
 Casted dimensions (size).
 Casting design aspects.
 Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials and molding methods
employed)
2. Machining Allowance:
A Casting is given an allowance for machining, because:
 Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat treatment; scales etc.,
thus formed need to be removed.
 It is the intended to remove surface roughness and other imperfections
from the castings.
 It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
 Surface finish is required on the casting.
 For cast iron the allowance will be
Machining allowance should be provided, depends on the factors listed
below:
 Nature of metals.
 Size and shape of casting.
 The type of machining operations to be employed for cleaning the
casting.
 Casting conditions.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

8
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

 Molding process employed

3. Draft or Taper Allowance:
 It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
 Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be easily removed from the
molding material tightly packed around it without damaging the mould cavity.
The amount of taper depends upon:
 Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in contact with the
mould cavity.
 Moulding methods, Mould materials.
 Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well as external
surfaces; of course it is more on internal surfaces.

Pattern having draft on vertical edges

4. Distortion or cambered allowance:

A casting will distort or wrap if :
 It is of irregular shape,
 All parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some parts shrinks while
others are restricted
 It is u or v-shape,
 The arms possess unequal thickness,
 One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate as compared to the
other.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

9
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

5. Shake allowance:
 A patter is shaken or rapped to detach it from the mould cavity.
This is done so that a little is loosened in the mold cavity and can
be easily removed.
 In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould cavity which results
in a bigger sized casting.
 Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern i.e., the pattern
dimensions are kept smaller in order to compensate the
enlargement of mould cavity due to rapping.
 The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by increasing
the taper.
Sources of Molding Sand Molding
Sand used in foundries is available in (i) River beds. (ii) Sea. (iii) Deserts. (iv)
Lakes.

1.6 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of
varieties which are described below.

1) Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared
mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from
6 to 8. It is commonly employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous
castings. It is used for small and medium size castings.
2) Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold
and cores, is called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

10
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

stability. Mold prepared in this sand are known as dry sand molds. It is mainly
suitable for larger castings.
3) Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand
possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water. Loam sand becomes
hard when it is dried. This is particularly employed for loam molding used for
large grey iron castings such as bell, pulley.

4) Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mold, gives surface finish
to casting. It is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into
contact molten metal when the mold is poured.. It is made of silica sand and
clay, without the use of used sand.
5) Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill
the whole volume of the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed
for this purpose.
6) Parting sand
Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to
stick to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope
and drag to separate without clinging.
7) Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand.
This is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which
composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.

1.7 Molding sand Properties

1. Refractoriness:
It is the ability of the molding material to with stand high temperatures
(experienced during pouring) with out
 Fusion,
 Cracking, buckling or scabbing,
 Experiencing any major physical change.
 Silica(SiO2) sand have high refractoriness.

Material Melting Point ˚C Coefficient of linear expansion

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

11
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Silica 1710 16.2*106/˚C

Alumina 2020 8*106/˚C

Graphite 4200 (highest Nill

one)

2. Permeability:
 During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large
amount of gases and steam is generated.
 These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during
melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by
the molding and core sand.
 If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be
entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects.
 To overcome this problem the molding material must be porous.
 Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are
generated inside the mold cavity.
3. Green strength:
 The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand.
 The green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other
to impart sufficient strength to the mold.
 The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed
mold retains its shape.
 Green strength helps in making and handling the moulds.

4. Dry strength:

A mould may either intentionally be dried, or a green sand mould may

lose its moisture and get dried while when it comes in contact with
molten metal being poured.
The sand thus dried must have dry strength to
 Withstand erosive forces due to molten metal,
 Withstand pressure of molten metal,
 Retain its exact shape,
 Withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
St.Joseph’s College of Engineering
12
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

5. Hot strength:

The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is
called hot strength.In the absence of adequate hot strength, the mold may
 Enlarge
 Break, Erode Or
 Get cracked.

6. Collapsibility:

 Collapsibility determines the readiness with which the molding

sand
automatically gets collapsed after the casting solidifies, and
 If the mould or core does not collapse, it may restrict free
contraction of solidifying metal and cause the same to tear or
crack.
7. Flowability:
 It is the ability of the molding sand to get compacted to a uniform
density.
 Flowability assists molding sand to flow and pack all-around the
pattern and take up the required shape.

8. Adhesiveness:
It is the property of molding sand owing to which, it Sticks with the walls of
molding boxes,

9. Fineness:
 Finer sand mould resist metal penetration and produce smooth
casting surfaces.
 Fineness and permeability are in conflict with each other and hence
they must be balanced for optimum results.

1.8 SAND TESTING

Generally the following tests are performed to judge the molding and casting
characteristics of foundry sands:

 Moisture content Test

 Clay content Test
St.Joseph’s College of Engineering
13
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

 Chemical composition of sand

 Grain shape and surface texture of sand.
 Grain size distribution of sand
 Refractoriness of sand
 Strength Test
 Permeability Test
 Flowability Test
 Shatter index Test
 Mould hardness Test.
Moisture Content Test

 The moisture content of the molding sand mixture may determine by

drying a weighed amount of 20 to 50 grams of molding sand to a constant
temperature up to 100°C in a oven for about one hour.
 It is then cooled to a room temperature and then reweighing the molding
sand. The moisture content in molding sand is thus evaporated.
 The loss in weight of molding sand due to loss of moisture, gives the
amount of moisture which can be expressed as a percentage of the original sand
sample.
 Speedy moisture teller instrument is based on the principle that when
water and calcium carbide react, they form acetylene gas which can be increase
the pressure of the chamber so this will be directly proportional to the moisture
content.
 CaC2 + 2H2O--->C2H2 + Ca(OH)2

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

14
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Clay Content Test: The amount of clay is determined by carrying out the clay
content test in which clay in molding sand of dried 50 grams( at 105˚C ) sample
is mixed with 475ml of distilled water and 25ml of 1% NaOH is thoroughly
stirred for five minutes.

Then it is allowed to settle for 10mins. The sand is settled at the bottom. The
clay is floating. The floating clay is removed. Then it is washed with water, and
once again remove the floating clay.

Repeat the steps till the end of getting clear sand. Now it is dried in the oven
and weighed the difference in the weight (50gm) can be calculated and we can
identify the percentage of the clay content in the sand.

Grain Fineness Test

The AFS Grain Fineness Number (AFS-GFN Grain Fitness Number) is one
means of measuring the grain fineness of a sand system. (American foundary
society-grain fitness number)

GFN is a measure of the average size of the particles (or grains) in a sand
sample. The grain fineness of molding sand is measured using a test called sieve
analysis.

1. A representative sample of the sand is dried and weighed, then passed

through a series of progressively finer sieves (screens) while they are agitated
and tapped for a 15-minute test cycle. The series are placed in order of fineness
from top to bottom.
2. The sand retained on each sieve (grains that are too large to pass through) is
then weighed and recorded. The weight retained on each sieve is carried out
through calculations to get the AFS-GFN.(American foundary society-grain
fitness number)

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

15
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Grain Finess No.= (Total product / Total percentage of sand retained on pan
and each sieve)

Strength Test
This is the strength of tempered sand expressed by its ability to hold a mold in
shape. The green compressive strength test and dry compressive strength is the
most used test in the foundry.

Compression tests
A rammed specimen of tempered molding sand is produced that is 2 inches in
diameter and 2 inches in height. The rammed sample is then subjected to a load
which is gradually increased until the sample breaks. The point where the
sample breaks is taken as the compression strength.

Permeability Test

The rate of flow of air through a compacted specimen under standard pressure
conditions.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

16
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

A cylinder sand sample is prepared by using rammer and die. This specimen
(usually 2 inch diameter & 2 inch height) is used for testing the permeability or
porosity of molding and the core sand.
The test is performed in a permeability meter consisting of the balanced tank,
water tank, nozzle, adjusting lever, nose piece for fixing sand specimen and a
manometer.
 The permeability is directly measured.
 Permeability number P is volume of air (in cm 3) passing through a sand
specimen of 1 cm2 cross-sectional area and 1 cm height, at a pressure difference
of 1 gm/cm2 in one minute.
P = VH /ATp

Where, P = permeability, V = volume of air passing through the specimen in

c.c.
H = height of specimen in cm, p = pressure of air in gm/cm 2, A = cross-
sectional area of the specimen in cm2 ,T = time in minutes.
1.9 TYPES OF MOULDING MACHINES
By using moulding mahine the uniformity of casting is improved, eliminate the
need of skilled molders, tolerances of casting is improved.
The following types of moulding machines are:
*Jolting machine *Squeezing machine *Sand slinger

Jolting machine:
 The pattern is placed in the flask on the table. The flask is filled up with
moulding sand. The table with flask is raised to about 80mm and
suddenly dropped.
 The table will be operated pneumatically or hydraulically. The sudden
dropping of table from a height makes the sand pack evenly around the
pattern.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

17
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Jolt-Squeeze machine:
 It operates jolt as well as squeeze operation.
 Sand is sprayed over the pattern. Sand is filled in the drag and it is jolted
repeatedly.(pneumatically or hydraulically)
 After jolting it is rolled over by hand. Parting agents are sprinkled over the
cope surface.
 The squeezer board then squeezes the entire mould.
 This squeezing helps to make pouring basin and to show locations of riser,
gate, sprue etc.
 Squeeze board is removed and gate, sprue and risers are cut with the help of
sprue cutter.
Sand slinger:
 It consists of base, sand bin, bucket elevator, swinging arm, belt conveyor
and sand impeller.Elevator bucket is used to lift the sand and it passes it to
conveyor.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

18
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

 The sand is discharged into the molding box at a rate of 300 – 2000
kg/minute.
 This force is great enough to ram.

1.10 CORE
 A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce
internal cavities.
 It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring.
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the
core to form the castings external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during
pouring called chaplets.

1.11 TYPES OF CORES

Condition of core- Green sand core, Dry sand core
1. Nature of core material- Oil Bonded, Resin Bonded, Shell And
Sodium Silicate Cores
2. Core hardened process- CO2 process, Hot Box Process, Cold Set
Process
3. Shape and position – Horizontal,Vertical,Cover Core, Balanced
Core, Drop Core, Kiss Core
Green sand cores:
These are obtained by the pattern itself during moulding. Though this is the
most economical way of preparing a core, the green sand being low in strength
cannot be used for fairly deep holes. Also a large amount of draft is to be
provided so that the pattern can be withdrawn.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

19
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Dry sand cores:

It is made by special core sands in a separate core box, backed and then placed
in the mould before pouring.
Oil bonded core: silica + linseed oil.
Resin bonded cores: phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a core box.
Backing temp is 450˚F
Hot box core: It uses heated core boxes for the production of core. Cast iron,
steel or aluminium core box are used. Core box are heated to 500˚F.
Cold set process:while mixing the core-sand an accelerator is added to the
binder. It is easily rammed. A little heating make it harderns it. It is employed
for large cores.
Horizontal core: It is positioned horizontally in the mould. Depends upon the
cavity the shape is prepared. It is supported at both ends.
Vertical core: Its axis is vertical. The two ends are supported in core seats in
cope and drag.
Cover core: It is supported from above and it hangs vertically in mold cavity.
Balanced core: It is supported and balanced from its one end only. Some times
chaplets used.
Drop core or Stop off core: It is employed to make a cavity which cannot be
made with other types cores. To make a cavity above or below the parting line it
is used.
Kiss core: A kiss core does not require core seats for getting supported. A kiss
core is held in position between drag and cope due to the pressure exerted by
cope on the drag. A number of kiss cores can be simultaneously positioned
inorder to obtain a number of holes in a casting.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

20
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

If a core is symmetrical then it can be made into two equal parts and then
assembled together by adhesives or fastened by wires. The nut and bolt are
covered by the core plug.
Core positioning and supports:
To support the core a projection made in the pattern is called core print. It is
used to form a core seat in the mould.

Chaplets are metallic supports often kept inside the mould cavity to support the
cores. These are the same composition as that of the pouring metal so that
themolten metal would provide enough heat to complete melt them asd thus
fuse with it during solidification.

1.13 FURNACE:

1.13.1 Blast furnace:

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

21
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

This method is used to melt metal ore and to produce the pig iron that is the raw
material for wrought iron. The charge is placed a giant chimney called a blast
furnace. The blast furnace is around 30 metres high and lined with fireproof
bricks. Hot air is blasted through the bottom. This furnace is 30m high and 8m
diameter.
Working process:
Unwanted impurities are light in weight so the melted pig iron will be in the
bottom of the chamber. The furnace surface is lined with refractory bricks.
Coke, limestone and iron ore are poured at the top. Air is blown in through
tuyers near the base. Three substances are needed to enable to extraction of
iron from its ore. The combined mixture is called the charge:
Iron ore, haematite - often contains sand with iron oxide, Fe2O3.
Limestone (calcium carbonate).Coke - mainly carbon.

Several reactions take place before the iron is finally produced.

Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:

At 1500˚C the limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

The calcium oxide reacts with various acidic impurities in the iron, forming a
slag calcium silicate, which floats on the iron.
Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more coke to produce carbon
monoxide:

The carbon monoxide reduces the iron in the ore to give molten iron:
St.Joseph’s College of Engineering
22
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

The limestone from 2, reacts with the sand to form slag (calcium silicate):

Both the slag and iron are drained from the bottom of the furnace. The pig iron
produced form the blast furnace is not very useful due to its high carbon
content (around 4-5%) which makes it brittle. It is used to make cast iron goods,
often being remelted in a foundry cupola. The slag is mainly used to build
roads. The iron molten is poured into moulds and left to solidify - this is called
cast iron and is used to make railings and storage tanks. The rest of the iron is
used to make steel.
1.14 CUPOLA DIFFERENT TYPES OF ZONES
1. Well
The space between the bottom of the tuyeres and the sand bed inside the
cylindrical shell of the cupola is called as well of the cupola. As the melting
occurs, the molten metal is get collected in this portion before tapping out.
2. Combustionzone
The combustion zone of Cupola is also called as oxidizing zone. It is located
between the upper of the tuyeres and a theoretical level above it. The total
height of this zone is normally from 15 cm. to 30 cm. The heat generated in this
zone is sufficient enough to meet the requirements of other zones of cupola. The
heat is further evolved also due to oxidation of silicon and manganese. A
temperature of about 1540°C to 1870°C is achieved in this zone. Few
exothermic reactions takes place in this zone these are represented as :
C + O2 ——→ CO2 + Heat
Si + O2 ——→ SiO2 + Heat
3. Reducing zone
Reducing zone of Cupola is also known as the protective zone which is located
between the upper level of the combustion zone and the upper level of the coke
bed. In this zone, CO2 is changed to CO through an endothermic reaction, as a
result of which the temperature falls from combustion zone temperature to
about 1200°C at the top of this zone. The important chemical reaction takes
place in this zone which is given as

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

23
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

2Mn + O2 ——→ 2MnO + Heat

CO2 + C (coke) ——→ 2CO + Heat
Nitrogen does not participate in the chemical reaction occurring in his zone as it
is also the other main constituent of the upward moving hot gases. Because of
the reducing atmosphere in this zone, the charge is protected against oxidation.
4. Melting zone
The lower layer of metal charge above the lower layer of coke bed is termed as
melting zone of Cupola. The metal charge starts melting in this zone and
trickles down through coke bed and gets collected in the well.
3Fe + 2CO——→ Fe3C + CO2
5. Preheating zone
This zone contains a number of alternate layers of coke bed, flux and metal
charge. The main objective of this zone is to preheat the charges from room
temperature to about 1090°C before entering the metal charge to the melting
zone. The preheating takes place in this zone due to the upward movement of
hot gases. The empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone is called as
stack. It provides the passage to hot gases to go to atmosphere from the cupola
furnace.

1.14.1 WORKING OF CUPOLA FURNACE

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

24
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Initially the furnace is opened to drop the existing earlier charge residue. The
furnace is then repaired using rich refractory lining. After the fire is ignited
using firewood and then small amount of coke is used to pick fire. The little
oxygen is then supplied for combustion. Lime, coke, and metal in balanced
proportions are charged through the charging door upon the coke bed and at
proper time on starting the blower. Air is forced from wind box through tuyers
into furnace. The forced air rise upward rough the stack furnaces for
combustion of coke. Besides being fuel, the coke supports the charge until
melting occurs. On increase of temperature, the lime stone melts and forms a
flux which protects the metal against from excessive oxidation. The melting
occurs and proceeds and molten metal is collected at the bottom.
Applications of Cupola
Cupola is most widely used for melting practices for production of grey cast
iron, nodular cast iron, malleable cast iron and alloy cast iron. It can be used for
melting some copper-base alloys, malleable cast iron and ductile cast iron.
1.15 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESS

1.15. 1 Shell Molding

 Shell mold casting is molding techniques for mass production, lower

labor requirement and smooth finish.
 It is a process in which, a thin mold is made around a heated metallic
pattern plate.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

25
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

 The molding material is a mixture of dry, fine silica sand (clay content
should be kept very low), and 3-8% of a thermosetting resin like phenol
formaldehyde or silicon grease.
 The shell mold casting process consists of the following six steps:
Pattern creation - Mold creation - Mold assembly - Pouring - Cooling -
Casting removal
 Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (3–6%) thermosettingphenolic
resin and liquid catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The
pattern is usually made from cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 °C. The
sand is allowed to sit on the pattern for a few minutes to allow the sand to
partially cure.
 The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of
the pattern, leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and
temperature of the pattern the thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm
 The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the
sand. The shell now has a tensile strength of 2.4 to 3.1 MPa.
 The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.
 Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a
thermoset adhesive, to form a mold.
 For casting the shell mold is placed inside a flask and surrounded with
shot, sand, or gravel to reinforce the shell.
 The machine that is used for this process is called a shell molding
machine. It heats the pattern, applies the sand mixture, and bakes the
shell.

Examples of shell molded items include gear housings, cylinder heads and
connecting rods. It is also used to make high-precision molding cores.

Advantages

1) High suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder.

2) Excellent surface finish.
3) Dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm.
4) Negligible machining and cleaning cost.
St.Joseph’s College of Engineering
26
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

5) Occupies less floor space.

Disadvantages
1) Higher pattern cost, resin cost.
2) Not economical for small runs.
3) Dust-extraction problem.
4) Complicated jobs and jobs of various sizes cannot be easily shell molded.
5) Specialized equipment is required.
1.15.2 INVESTMENT CASTING or LOST WAX PROCESS

In investment casting, a pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material

to make the mold, after which the wax is melted away prior to pouring the
molten metal.
Steps in investment casting:
(1) Wax patterns are produced; with a help of special steel dies. Wax is injected
at 1500C at a pressure range of 35 bar.
(2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree;
(3) The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material.
(4) The full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid;
(5) The mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and
permit it to drip out of the cavity;

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

27
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

(6) The mold is preheated to a high temperature, which ensures that all
contaminants are eliminated from the mold; it also permits the liquid metal to
flow more easily into the detailed cavity; the molten metal is poured; it
solidifies; and
(7) The mold is broken away from the finished casting. Parts are separated from
the sprue.
Applications:

 Nozzles, vanes, gas turbines

 Aerospace industry parts
 Scientific instruments
Disadvantages:
 Only small size is possible.
 More expensive.
 Location of hole is impossible.
Advantages:

 Complex shape can be made.

 Good surface finish.
 Unmachinable alloys can be cast.
 Number of castings can be made at a time.

1.15.3 CERAMIC MOULDING:

 In this processes it use ceramics as the mould material. It is a

combination of plaster mould casting and casting. There are two types of
ceramic mould casting: the Shaw process and the Unicast process.
 These casting processes are commonly used to make tooling, especially
drop forging dies, but also injection molding dies, die casting dies, glass molds,
stamping dies, and extrusion dies.
 Ceramic mold casting method uses a ceramic slurry prepared by mixing
fine grained refractory powders of Zircon (ZrSiO4), Alumina (Al2O3), Fused
Silica (SiO2) and a liquid chemical binder (Alcohol based Silicon Ester) for
making the mold.
 The slurry fills up the cavity and recesses by itself and no ramming or
vibration of the mould is required.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

28
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

 The pattern is withdrawn. After 3 to 5 minutes. Then the ceramic mass is

removed from the flask, treated with a hardener to promote chemical
stabilization and heated to about 980˚C in a furnace to remove the liquid binder.
 The mould is then ready for pouring molten metal.

Advantages:
 Highest precision and extremely high finish are obtained.
 Suitable for all types of cast metals including highly reactive metals such
as titanium and uranium.
 The castings do not require any riser, venting and chilling as the cooling
rate is very slow.
 An ordinary wood metal or epoxy pattern enough.
Disadvantages:
 The process is expensive because the mould material is costly.
 Impractical to control dimensional tolerances across the parting line.
1.15.4 PRESSURE DIE CASTING:

It can be done by two methods 1.Hot chamber 2. Cold chamber pressure die
casting. This process is suitable for casting lead, magnesium, tin, brass.

1.15.4.1 Hot Chamber Die Casting:

The heating chamber is provided for melting the metal. This chamber is heated
by a burner. A gooseneck vessel is submerged in the molten metal. A plunger is
provided at the top of gooseneck vessel.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

29
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

When the plunger move upward the molten metal flows into the vessel through
the port.
When the plunger moves downwards the molten metal forced into die under
pressure 3– 5Mpa.
As the die is water cooled, the molten metal will solidify immediately, then

movable die is moved and castings are ejected.

This method is used for

casting low melting point
metals such as zinc, tin
and lead.

Products: car engine, golf

club heads, radiators.

Advantages: Simple machine, has no moving parts.

Disadvantages: Production rate is low compared to submerged plunger.
Compressed air does not produce pressure on molten metal so effectively as the
plunger.

1.15.4.2 Cold chamber die casting: It is done in cold chamber machine. It is

similar to hot chamber process but there is no melting unit in the machine and
the molten metal is poured though a ladle.
The temperature of the molten metal is lower compared to the hot chamber
casting, so that the pressure applied is much higher (70-200Mpa) than the hot
chamber casting.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

30
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Metal Pour- Ram Forces - 200 to

2000kg/m2 – Solidification – Die
Opens- Ejector

Application: To cast Aluminium,

brass, magnesium.

1.16.CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS:

Centrifugal casting refers to several casting methods in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so that centrifugal force distributes the molten metal to the
outer regions of the die cavity. The group includes (1) true centrifugal casting,
(2) semi-centrifugal casting, and (3) centrifuge casting.
1.16.1 True Centrifugal Casting
De lavaud process:
 In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to
produce a tubular part. Examples of parts made by this process include
pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings. One possible setup is illustrated in
Figure Molten metal is poured into a horizontal rotating mold at one end.
 The high-speed rotation results incentrifugal forces that cause the metal to
take the shape of the mold cavity.
 Thus, the outside shape of the casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, and so on. Without core manufacture of hollow section is
possible.

Ladle

 This can be used to produce cylindrical casting such as bushings, gun

barrels iron pipes.
Advantages: Core is not required. High rate of production. Pattern, runner
and riser are not required. Thin casting can be made. Castings have uniform
physical properties.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

31
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Wheels and pulleys are examples of castings that can be made by this process
Limitations: It is suitable for only cylindrical parts only. Cost of equipment is
high.

1.17 CO2 CASTING PROCESS:

This process is widely used for rapid hardening the molds & cores made up of
green sand. The mold making process is similar to conventional molding
procedure except the mold material which comprises of pure dry silica sand
free from clay, 3-5% sodium silicate as binder and moisture content generally
less than 3%.
 A small amount of starch may be added to improve the green compression
strength and a very small quantity of coal dust, sea coal, dextrin, wood floor,
pitch, graphite and sugar can also be added to improve the collapsibility of the
molding sand.
 The prepared molding sand is rammed around the pattern in the mold box and
mold is prepared by any conventional technique.
 After packing, carbon dioxide gas at about 1.3-1.5 kg/cm2 pressure is then
forced all-round the mold surface to about 20 to 30 seconds using CO 2 head or
probe or curtain.
 Cores can be baked this way.
 The sodium silicate presented in the mold reacts with CO 2 and produce a very
hard constituents or substance commonly called as silica gel.

 This hard substance is like cement and helps in binding the sand grains.
 This method is used to producing very strong mold and cores for high end
applications.
 Molds and cores thus prepared can be used for pouring molten metal for
production of both ferrous and non-ferrous casting.
 The operation is quick, simple require semi-skilled worker.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

32
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Advantages:

 Compared to other casting methods cores and molds are strong

 Provides great dimensional tolerance and accuracy in production
 Moisture is completely eliminated from the molding sand
 This process can be fully automated.

1.18 STIR CASTING PROCESS:

Stir casting is a process is used to prepare an adequate homogenous particle
distribution throughout the molten material. The stainless steel stirrer blade was
coated with zirconia to avoid the reaction between stainless steel and Al alloys
at higher temperatures.

The Argon gas was supplied into the near the crucible during the stirring to
avoid the formation of oxide layer on the surface of matrix melt. The Stirring
speed 450 – 1000 rpm was maintained throughout work. The mixture is allowed
to solidify in the preheated (300°C) steel die.(RHA- Rice Husk Ash)
Advantages: The cost of preparing composites materials using a casting method
is about one third to one half that of a competitive method. So the high volume
of production is possible.

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

33
ME1302/ Manufacturing Processes Mechanical Engineering 2023-2024

Application: used to produce high strength metal matrix composites

1.19 CASTING DEFECTS

(DEFECTS CAUSES REMEDIES
Blow Holes: Excess moisture content in the Control moisture content, ram
Group of ground sand properly Provide sufficient vent
holes. Hard Ramming, holes
Improper venting
Scabs: A sort of A portion of the mould Pouring pressure should be
projections on the falling in Erosion of a portion controlled.
casting. of mould Avoid rapid Pouring

Swells: Ramming is too soft, Avoid soft ramming Increase

Enlargement of Mould not properly supported strength of mould sand core
casting surface
Lift Wornout clamping pin, Replace the pin
shift:Mismatching Misaligment of two halves Locate the core properly
of casting section of pattern
Cold shut: Mould Pouring temperature lowPour at correct temperature
cavity not filled up Excess sulphur content Reduce sulphur content
completely of metal, Fault gating
Hot Tear: External Abrupt change in section, Improve Fillet and reduce
or internal is No proper fillet or radii change in section gradually.
continuity in the
casting

St.Joseph’s College of Engineering

34