A Course in Applied Linguistics

For Language Sciences and TEFL Master

Dr. Mokhtar Hamadouche

Lecturer of TEFL, Department of English

Faculty of Letters and Languages

Larbi Ben M’hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi

[email protected]
 A COURSE IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

A Course in Applied Linguistics

For Language Sciences and TEFL Master

Description of the Course

The course is divided between lectures presented by the teacher and students’

contributions in terms of research papers, presentations, books and articles reviews. It

is mainly based on the lectures below but which always remain open to the possibility

of further elaborating certain items, introducing extra materials (information,

examples, tasks, readings, etc.) and adopting other lectures as a response to the new

advances in the areas of applied linguistics and foreign language teaching/learning as

well as students’ needs, expectations and so on.

Objectives of the Course

Applied linguistics is introduced at this level to enlarge students’ knowledge in

the field of linguistics after having dealt with theoretical linguistics in their third-year

(and other branches of linguistics in previous years such as descriptive linguistics,

general linguistics and microlinguistics). The course seeks to equip students with

pertinent information about applied linguistics definitions, origins, foundations and

scope. Furthermore, a greater focus is placed on the contributions of applied linguistics

to language teaching, particularly second or foreign language education.

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Contents

Introduction: Branches of Linguistics.......................................................................... 4

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 4

1. General vs. Descriptive Linguistics ..................................................................... 4

2. Diachronic vs. Synchronic Linguistics ................................................................ 5

3. Microlinguistics vs. Macrolinguistics .................................................................. 6

4. Theoretical vs. Applied Linguistics ..................................................................... 9

Putting it together ..................................................................................................... 9

Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 10

Assignment One ................................................................................................. 10

Assignment Two ................................................................................................. 10

Assignment Three ............................................................................................... 10

Applied Linguistics Defined ...................................................................................... 11

The Need for and Scope of Applied Linguistics........................................................ 14

Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching: An Overview .... Error! Bookmark not

defined.

Applied Linguistics and Second Language acquisition: Contrastive Linguistics

.................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Introduction ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

1. Contrastive Analysis ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2. Error Analysis ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3. Interlanguage Analysis ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

4. Contrastive Rhetoric............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Conclusion............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

References .................................................................................................................. 21

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Introduction: Branches of Linguistics

Introduction

Linguistics, which is commonly defined as the scientific study of language, is

divided into a number of subfields according to the view that is adopted or the angle

from which language study is approached. For instance, linguistics can offer the study

of languages in general as well as that of a given language. It can trace the development

of a language in history or just make an account of it at a given point in time. It can

focus its investigation on language as a system in itself and for itself as it can study

how language operates on relation to other variables. It can be approached as purely

theoretical or as applied in a particular field. Accordingly, Lyons (1981) distinguishes

the field of linguistics into general vs. descriptive, diachronic vs. synchronic, micro

vs. macro, and theoretical vs. applied.

1. General vs. Descriptive Linguistics

The distinction between general and descriptive linguistics “corresponds to the

distinction between studying language in general and describing particular languages”

(Lyons, 1981, p. 34). This, however, does not imply that the two branches are

completely unrelated. Lyons (1981) emphasizes that general and descriptive

linguistics depend on each other. While the former provides concepts and categories

for languages to be analyzed on their bases, the latter works to provide data to confirm

or refute the proposed theories and assumptions. For instance, it might be put forward

by general linguistics that all languages have nouns and verbs. Descriptive linguistics

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may reject this hypothesis with empirical evidence that in some languages there is no

distinction between verbs and nouns. In the process of hypothesis confirming or

refuting, the descriptive linguist operates using concepts provided by the general

linguist, in this case the concepts of ‘verbs’ and ‘nouns’.

2. Diachronic vs. Synchronic Linguistics

The terms ‘diachronic’ and ‘synchronic’ have first been coined by the Swiss

linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in the early twentieth century as technical terms to

stand for ‘historical’ and ‘non-historical’. Diachronic has the literal meaning of across-

time or what relates “to the changes in something, especially a language, that happen

over time” (Diachronic, n.d.). Eventually, diachronic linguistics is the approach

studying the change of languages over time (Richards & Schmidt, 2010). On the other

hand, synchronic literally means with-time and generally relates to “a language at a

particular point in time, without considering how it developed to that point”

(Synchronic, n.d.). Synchronic linguistics therefore refers to the approach studying

language at a particular period of time with no reference to its history or development.

In other words, “in a synchronic approach to describing a language, we focus on that

language at one moment in time and describe it as we find it at that moment” (Trask,

2007, p. 287). Lyons (1981) summarizes the diachronic-synchronic distinction of

linguistics as follows:

A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the

language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive

points in time: ‘diachronic’ is equivalent, therefore, to ‘historical’. A

synchronic description of a language is non-historical: it presents an account

of the language as it is at some particular point in time. (p. 35).

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3. Microlinguistics vs. Macrolinguistics

Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics are terms given by Lyons (1981) to stand

for the narrower and the broader scopes of linguistics respectively. In this regard,

microlinguistics is devoted to the study of language structure without taking anything

else into consideration. In short, it is the study of language system in itself and for

itself. Macrolinguistics, on the other hand, is “concerned with everything that pertains

in any way at all to language and languages” (Lyons, 1981, p. 36).

Typical areas of microlinguistics investigation include the following1:

• Phonetics: the study of speech sounds. It entails the study of how speech

sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received.

• Phonology: the branch of linguistics which studies the sound systems of

languages. Whereas phonetics is chiefly concerned with the physical nature of

speech sounds, phonology deals with the ways in which sounds behave in

languages.

• Morphology: the branch of linguistics which studies word structure. It is the

study of morphemes and their different forms, and the way they combine in

word formation.

• Syntax: the branch of linguistics which studies sentence structure. Syntax is

concerned with the ways in which words combine to form sentences and the

rules which govern the formation of sentences, making some sentences

possible and others not possible within a particular language.

1
Definitions adopted from Trask (2007) and Richards & Schmidt (2010).

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• Semantics: the branch of linguistics studying meaning. Semantics investigates

the relation between linguistic expressions, such as the words of a language,

persons, things and events in the world to which these words refer in addition

to the way in which meaning in a language is structured.

• Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly

the relationships between sentences, contexts and situations in which they are

used.

In macrolinguistics, it is always language in relation to something in the real

world, like ‘sociolignuistics’ which refers to ‘language’ and ‘society’. The following

are some macrolinguistics areas of investigation as defined by Richards & Schmidt

(2010).

• Sociolinguistics: the study of language in relation to social factors, that is

social class, educational level and type of education, age, sex, ethnic origin,

etc.

• Psycholinguistics: the study of (a) the mental processes that a person uses in

producing and understanding language, and (b) how humans learn language.

Psycholinguistics includes the study of speech perception, the role of memory,

concepts and other processes in language use, and how social and

psychological factors affect the use of language.

• Neurolinguistics: the study of the functions the brain performs in language

learning and language use. Neurolinguistics includes research into how the

structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of

the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to

use language.

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• Discourse Analysis or Text Linguistics: the study of how sentences in spoken

and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs,

conversations, interviews, etc.

• Forensic Linguistics: a branch that investigates issues of language in relation

to the law. Issues of concern include forensic identification (speaker

identification in legal cases through handwriting analysis or speech analysis);

interpretation for the police and courts; the semantics of legal terminology (e.g.

the legal meanings of murder, manslaughter, homicide); the discourse of police

interrogations and legal proceedings; etc.

• Computational Linguistics: the scientific study of language from a

computational perspective. Computational linguists are interested in providing

computational models of natural language processing (both production and

comprehension) and various kinds of linguistic phenomena. The work of

computational linguists is incorporated into such practical applications as

speech recognition systems, speech synthesis, automated voice response

systems, web search engines, text editors, and language instruction materials.

• Anthropological Linguistics: a branch of linguistics which studies the

relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its traditions,

beliefs, and family structure. Some areas of anthropological linguistics are

closely related to areas of sociolinguistics and the ethnography of

communication.

• Cognitive Linguistics: an approach to linguistics which stresses the

interaction between language and cognition, focusing on language as an

instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.

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4. Theoretical vs. Applied Linguistics

Theoretical linguistics aims through studying language and languages to

construct “a theory of their structure and functions . . . without regard to any practical

applications that the investigation of language and languages might have” (Lyons,

1981, p. 35). Applied linguistics, on the other hand, entails the “study of language and

linguistics in relation to practical problems” (Richards & Schmidt, 2010, p. 29).

Applied linguistics uses information from a variety of disciplines in addition to

linguistics (for instance, sociology, anthropology and information theory) to first

develop theoretical models regarding language and language use and then use them in

practical areas.

Putting it together

Figure 1 : Branches of Linguistics Summarized

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Conclusion

In conclusion, it worth stressing that the aforementioned taxonomies may

overlap. Applied linguistics, for instance, is commonly used as opposed to theoretical

linguistics. Yet, in any applied linguistics practical investigation, there is a theoretical

model to start from. Some may consider applied linguistics a subfield of

macrolinguistics, others see it the other way around. For diachronic, as in synchronic,

interest can be placed on language in general (general linguistics) or in particular

languages (descriptive linguistics) ending up with labels such as descriptive

synchronic and general diachronic.

Assignment One

- Write a short composition to answer the following set of questions:

If we study the differences between classical Arabic poetry (for instance in the pre-

Islamic era) and modern poetry (twenty-first century), is it a diachronic or a synchronic

linguistics investigation? Is it general or descriptive? And is it theoretical or applied?

Assignment Two

- Answer the following question in the form of a composition:

In what sense can the study of linguistics be useful to you? What is the importance of

studying linguistics?

Assignment Three

- Are you familiar with other distinctions of linguistics? If yes, mention them

and relate them to the branches you studied.

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Applied Linguistics Defined

In their everyday practice, professionals whose work involves language may

find themselves in difficult or problematic situations with no evident standard

measures to take. In the course of employing linguistics insights to find solutions to

problems of language use in a diversity of contexts, one becomes involved in what is

known as an ‘applied linguistics’ research.

According to the International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA),

applied linguistics “is an interdisciplinary field of research and practice dealing with

practical problems of language and communication that can be identified, analysed or

solved by applying available theories, methods and results of Linguistics.” The

American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL) maintains that their area of

interest develops its own knowledge about language based on various disciplines from

humanities to social sciences to address language-related issues and understand their

roles for individuals and societies.

According to Widdowson (1984), the term applied linguistics implies that its

“concern is with the use of findings from theoretical studies of language for the

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solution of problems of one sort or another arising in a different domain” (p. 7).

Brumfit (1991), for instance, sees that applied linguistics main quest is to offer

solutions to “real-world problems in which language is a central issue” (cited in

McCarthy, 2001, p. 1). For McCarthy, it is a ‘problem-driven discipline’ that makes

recourse to the ‘theory-driven discipline’ of linguistics striving for potential solutions.

Similarly, Cook (2003) sustains that applied linguistics is the “academic discipline

concerned with the relation of knowledge about language to decision making in the

real world’ (p. 5).

In the same vein, Schmitt and Celce-Muricia (2010) perceive the discipline as

“using what we know about (a) language, (b) how it is learned and (c) how it is used,

in order to achieve some purpose or solve some problem in the real world” (p. 1).

Wilkins (1999) emphasizes that applied linguistics is about adding to our knowledge

concerning the roles of language in human affairs to eventually provide “knowledge

necessary for those who are responsible for taking language-related decisions whether

the need for these arises in the classroom, the workplace, the law court, or the

laboratory” (cited in Schmitt & Celce-Muricia, 2010, p. 1). Hrehovcik (2005), for his

part, defines applied linguistics as

an interdisciplinary field of research for the study of all aspects of

language use. Being a non-language-specific field, it primarily deals with

mother, foreign and second language acquisition but also examines the

relationship between language and such areas as the media, law, or

communication. It draws on such well-established disciplines as

linguistics, social and educational psychology, sociology, anthropology,

and education. (Original emphasis, p. 217)

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In short, applied linguistics is not an easy discipline to define. In Davies’s

(2007) words, it “does not lend itself to an easy definition” (p. 1); in Widdowson’s

(2000), it is devoid of a “stable definition” (p. 3). One of the reasons behind this is the

wide scope applied linguistics sets for its investigation as well as the growing and

everyday expanding uses of language with all the problems this may lead to. It is

generally viewed, though, as the subject that draws from linguistics, psychology,

sociology, education and so on to address language-related problems in the real world.

Typically, any applied linguistics endeavour ends up with recommendations and

suggestions for decision makers concerning the use of language in a given field.

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The Need for and Scope of Applied Linguistics

Applied linguistics as a problem-driven area of investigation seeks to find to

any of the following intricate situations:

1. A speech therapist sets out to investigate why a four-year-old child has failed

to develop normal linguistics skills for a child of that age.

2. A teacher of English as a foreign language wonders why groups of learners

sharing the same first language regularly make a particular grammatical

mistake that learners from other language backgrounds do not.

3. An expert witness in a criminal case tries to solve the problem of who exactly

instigated a crime, working only with statements made to the police.

4. An advertising copy writer searches for what would be the most effective use

of language to target a particular social group in order to sell a product.

5. A mother-tongue teacher needs to know what potential employers consider

important in terms of a school-leaver’s ability to write reports or other business

documents.

6. A literary scholar suspects that an anonymous work was in fact written by a

very famous writer and looks for methods of investigating the hypothesis.

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7. A group of civil servants are tasked with standardizing language usage in their

country, or deciding major aspects of language planning policy that will affect

millions of people (McCarthy, 2001, pp. 1-2).

The problems cited above are just examples of many others that fall within the

scope of applied linguistics investigation. As it can be noticed, these problems are not

exclusive to language teaching and learning but include other areas of interest where

language is a central issue. Cook (2003) maintains that in order for decisions to be

made, a number of questions and subsidiary questions are to be asked where their

opposed answers should be considered. Examples of such questions, which are by no

means different from McCarthy’s (2001) ‘situations’, are presented as follows:

1. What language skills should children attain beyond basic literacy? (And what

is basic literacy anyway? Reading and writing, or something more?)

2. Should children speaking a dialect be encouraged to maintain it or steered

towards the standard form of a language? (And, if so, how is that standard form

decided and by whom?)

3. Should the growth of English as the international lingua franca be welcomed

or deplored?

4. In communities with more than one language which ones should be used in

schools? (And does every child have a right to be educated in the language they

use at home?)

5. Is it better for people to learn each other’s languages or use translations? (And

what is accurate or ‘good’ translation? Could it ever be done by computer?)

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6. Should deaf children learn a sign language, or a combination of lip reading and

speaking? (And are sign languages as complex as spoken ones?)

7. Which languages should be used in law courts and official documents?

8. Should everyone learn foreign languages and, if so, which one or ones? (And

what is the best way to learn and teach them?) (Cook, 2003, p. 4).

In order to approach such problems and questions in an applied linguistics way,

the right theoretical framework needs to be located first. In other words, what

theoretical aspect of language study (or linguistics branch) is the most relevant to my

area of concern? Then, a number of other questions need to be asked for the appropriate

methods to be selected. The following examples by McCarthy (2001) illustrate some

potential linguistic questions for the solution of two different problematic situations,

namely additional language learning and lexicography.

Example 1:

- A teacher trying to understand why learners from the same background are

having difficulty with a particular grammatical structure in English.

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Figure 2: Potential linguistic questions for the solution of a grammatical problem

(McCarthy, 2001, p. 8)

Example 2:

- A dictionary writer looking for alternatives to the alphabetical dictionary.

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Figure 3 : Potential linguistic questions for the solution of a lexicographic problem

(McCarthy, 2001, p. 8)

Based on McCarthy’s situations or problems and Cook’s questions, the scope of

applied linguistics could be narrowed down to a number of areas, namely language

and education; language, work and law; in addition to language, information and

effect.

(i) Language and education

- First language education: studying one’s home language or languages

- Additional language education: generally divided into second and foreign

language education. In second language education, one studies a society’s

majority or official language which is not a home language. In a foreign

language education, the language studied is of another country.

- Clinical linguistics: entails the application of linguistic sciences and theories

to the study of language disabilities and speech pathologies.

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- Language testing: the assessment of the achievement and proficiency in both

first and additional languages.

(ii) Language, work and law

- Workplace communication: the study of the power and use of language in

the workplace.

- Language planning: the process of making decisions about the way language

is used officially in a given country and what language or languages are used

in educational and other institutions.

- Forensic linguistics: the application of linguistics research and methods to the

law and criminal investigations.

(iii) Language, information and effect

- Literary stylistics: studying linguistics choices and their effects in literature.

- Critical discourse analysis: studies the relationship between linguistics

choices and their effects in persuasive uses of language. It investigates how

language is used and analyzes texts and other discourse types in order to

identify the ideology and values underlying them.

- Translation and interpretation: on the surface, the difference between

interpreting and translation is the mode of expression. Interpreters deal with

spoken language and translate orally, while translators deal with written text,

transforming the source text into a comprehensible and equivalent target text.

- Information design: has to do with the arrangement and presentation of

written language. It is the practice of presenting information in a way that

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foresters efficient and effective understanding (e.g. advertisements, technical

documentation, websites, product user interfaces, etc.).

- Lexicography: designing monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, and other

language reference works such as thesauri (Cook, 2003, pp. 7-8).

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